The Bacillus subtilis transcriptional regulator Fnr is an integral part of the regulatory cascade required for the adaptation of the bacterium to low oxygen tension. The B. subtilis Fnr regulon was defined via transcriptomic analysis in combination with bioinformatic-based binding site prediction. Four distinct groups of Fnr-dependent genes were observed. Group 1 genes ( narKfnr , narGHJI , and arfM ) are generally induced by Fnr under anaerobic conditions. All corresponding promoters contain an essential Fnr-binding site centered −41.5/−40.5 bp upstream of the transcriptional start point, suggesting their induction by direct Fnr interaction. Group 2 genes ( alsSD , ldh lctP , ywcJ , and cydABCD ) are characterized by anaerobic repression in the presence of nitrate. Mutational analysis of the Fnr-binding sites found in three of the corresponding promoters excluded their function in Fnr-mediated repression. Genetic evidence showing that group 2 genes are anaerobically repressed by nitrate reductase formation was accumulated. A possible role of the redox regulator YdiH in the regulation of group 2 genes was initially investigated. Group 3 genes are characterized by their Fnr-dependent activation in the presence of nitrate and the lack of an Fnr-binding site in their promoters. The analysis of Group 3 gene transcription ( ykuNOP and ydbN ) indicated that Fnr induces nitrate reductase production, which leads to the formation of the regulatory compound nitrite from nitrate. Finally, the group 4 operon acoABCL , lacking an Fnr-binding site, requires Fnr-dependent nitrate reductase formation for its general anaerobic induction. A regulatory model for the observed complex Fnr-mediated gene expression was deduced.

Summary: The oxygen regulator Fnr is part of the regulatory cascade in Bacillus subtilis for the adaptation to anaerobic growth conditions. In vivo complementation experiments revealed the essential role of only three cysteine residues (C227, C230, C235) at the C‐terminus of B. subtilis Fnr for the transcriptional activation of the nitrate reductase operon (narGHJI) and nitrite extrusion protein gene (narK) promoters. UV/VIS, electron paramagnetic spin resonance (EPR) and Mössbauer spectroscopy experiments in combination with iron and sulphide content determinations using anaerobically purified recombinant B. subtilis Fnr identified the role of these three cysteine residues in the formation of one [4Fe‐4S]²⁺ cluster per Fnr molecule. The obtained Mössbauer parameters are supportive for a [4Fe‐4S]²⁺ cluster with three cysteine ligated iron sites and one non‐cysteine ligated iron site. Gel filtration experiments revealed a stable dimeric structure for B. subtilis Fnr which is independent of the presence of the [4Fe‐4S]²⁺ cluster. Gel mobility shift and in vitro transcription assays demonstrated the essential role of an intact [4Fe‐4S]²⁺ cluster for promoter binding and transcriptional activation. An amino acid exchange introduced in the proposed α_D‐helix of B. subtilis Fnr (G149S) abolished its in vivo and in vitro activities indicating its importance for intramolecular signal transduction. The clear differences in the localization and coordination of the [4Fe‐4S] cluster and in the organization of the oligomeric state between Escherichia coli and B. subtilis Fnr indicate differences in their mode of action.

Bacillus subtilis forms acetoin under anaerobic fermentative growth conditions and as a product of the aerobic carbon overflow metabolism. Acetoin formation from pyruvate requires α-acetolactate synthase and acetolactate decarboxylase, both encoded by the alsSD operon. The alsR gene, encoding the LysR-type transcriptional regulator AlsR, was found to be essential for the in vivo expression of alsSD in response to anaerobic acetate accumulation, the addition of acetate, low pH, and the aerobic stationary phase. The expressions of the alsSD operon and the alsR regulatory gene were independent of other regulators of the anaerobic regulatory network, including ResDE, Fnr, and ArfM. A negative autoregulation of alsR was observed. In vitro transcription from the alsSD promoter using purified B. subtilis RNA polymerase required AlsR. DNA binding studies with purified recombinant AlsR in combination with promoter mutagenesis experiments identified a 19-bp high-affinity palindromic binding site (TAAT-N₁₁-ATTA) at positions −76 to −58 (regulatory binding site [RBS]) and a low-affinity site (AT-N₁₁-AT) at positions −41 to −27 (activator binding site [ABS]) upstream of the transcriptional start site of alsSD. The RBS and ABS were found to be essential for in vivo alsSD transcription. AlsR binding to both sites induced the formation of higher-order, transcription-competent complexes. The AlsR protein carrying the S100A substitution at the potential coinducer binding site still bound to the RBS and ABS. However, AlsR(S100A) failed to form the higher-order complex and to initiate in vivo and in vitro transcription. A model for AlsR promoter binding and transcriptional activation was deduced.

The Bacillus subtilis redox regulator Fnr controls genes of the anaerobic metabolism in response to low oxygen tension. An unusual structure for the oxygen-sensing [4Fe-4S]²⁺ cluster was detected by a combination of genetic experiments with UV-visible and Mössbauer spectroscopy. Asp-141 was identified as the fourth iron-sulfur cluster ligand besides three Cys residues. Exchange of Asp-141 with Ala abolished functional in vivo complementation of an fnr knock-out strain by the mutagenized fnr gene and in vitro DNA binding of the recombinant regulator FnrD141A. In contrast, substitution of Asp-141 with Cys preserved [4Fe-4S]²⁺ structure and regulator function.

Transcription of the yclJK operon, which encodes a potential two-component regulatory system, is activated in response to oxygen limitation in Bacillus subtilis . Northern blot analysis and assays of yclJ-lacZ reporter gene fusion activity revealed that the anaerobic induction is dependent on another two-component signal transduction system encoded by resDE . ResDE was previously shown to be required for the induction of anaerobic energy metabolism. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays and DNase I footprinting experiments showed that the response regulator ResD binds specifically to the yclJK regulatory region upstream of the transcriptional start site. In vitro transcription experiments demonstrated that ResD is sufficient to activate yclJ transcription. The phosphorylation of ResD by its sensor kinase, ResE, highly stimulates its activity as a transcriptional activator. Multiple nucleotide substitutions in the ResD binding regions of the yclJ promoter abolished ResD binding in vitro and prevented the anaerobic induction of yclJK in vivo. A weight matrix for the ResD binding site was defined by a bioinformatic approach. The results obtained suggest the existence of a new branch of the complex regulatory system employed for the adaptation of B. subtilis to anaerobic growth conditions.