This study aimed to assess the nutritional information and structural overview of the BSFL (black soldier fly larva) flours (full fat and defatted). The BSFL flours were obtained by freeze-drying the larvae and the removal of fat using hexane and isopropanol ratio of 3:2 (v/v), these solvents were used due to their defatting efficiency and because they are less toxic. Nutritional and structural analyses were conducted using standard methods. The full-fat and defatted flours had high protein content (45.82% and 56.11% respectively). Defatting significantly (p < 0.05) increases the protein content by approximately 10%, while the fat content decreased from 25.78% in full-fat larvae to 4.8% in defatted larvae. The compositional data were qualitatively confirmed with Universal Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (UATR-FTIR) mainly in the amide I and II regions. Thermal gravimetry (TG) and differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) analysis, showed the conformational physical changes induced due to removal of fat which affected protein denaturation. DSC analysis displayed curves of both endothermic and exothermic reactions. During the first heating program, both samples had wide endothermic heating peaks ranging from 42 to 112 °C, which may be attributed to the water content in the samples evaporating. The first stage of the decomposition process was important, with loss of free and loosely bound water up to 150 °C, according to TGA curves. Protein and carbohydrates volatilized during the second stage of decomposition. The third level may be linked to polypeptide decomposition. FTIR revealed that the defatting process induced structural modifications on the amide I (1650 cm⁻¹) and amide II (1540 cm⁻¹) regions. Defatting has a significant effect on the functional groups and nutritional value of the BSFL. Defatted as well as full-fat flour both show good nutritional and structural characteristics for use in many food applications, however the improved proximate composition of the defatted BSFL can be applied to food products using BSFL flour as an alternative ingredient.

Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae are an increasingly popular source of protein in the food industry, and they are showing great potential as a sustainable alternative to traditional protein sources. However, to fully utilize the potential of insect protein as food, it is important to improve their functional characteristics. The purpose of this study was to thoroughly examine the influence of alkaline extraction and isoelectric precipitation methods assisted by salting-in (NaCl) and salting-out ((NH₄)₂SO₄) techniques on the functional properties of BSF larvae proteins. The physicochemical and techno−functional properties of the proteins were determined. The addition of (NH₄)₂SO₄ significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the solubility of protein, particularly at pH 2, suggesting its potential applicability in acidic food systems. Surface hydrophobicity was modulated by salt treatment, with salting-out methods reducing hydrophobicity and affecting protein functionality. The correlation analysis demonstrated a significant positive relationship (p < 0.05) between the various functional properties, emphasizing their interconnected nature. Foam capacity and foam stability showed a positive relationship with protein solubility at pH 4 (r = 0.88, p < 0.05; r = 0.74, p < 0.01, respectively). These findings imply the potential use of BSF larvae proteins in food formulations, especially considering the positive correlations observed between emulsification properties, solubility, and surface hydrophobicity. The identified correlations lay the groundwork for further exploration of BSF larvae proteins as sustainable functional ingredients in food applications, aligning with growing interest in alternative protein sources for the food industry.

Black soldier fly has been proposed as an alternative protein source sustainable for both food and feed due to its nutritional composition. The functional properties of this protein can be improved by inducing the Maillard reaction (MR) in protein-sugar mixtures. This study focused on the conjugation and characterisation of black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) proteins and conjugates. The defatted BSFL larvae were subjected to protein extraction at an alkaline pH. The protein extract was then conjugated with glucose. The BSFL protein and glucose were mixed at (2:1 w/w, pH 9), incubated at 50, 70, and 90 °C for 30, 60, 90 and 120 min. The products obtained were then characterised and compared. The changes were confirmed by universal attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (UATR-FTIR), scanning electron microscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry. UATR-FTIR combined with principal component analysis monitored the protein-sugar conjugates, to show the structural difference among heated proteins and conjugates. The heating treatments resulted in the unfolding and reduction of the protein molecule aggregation. The protein extract from the larvae was rich in protein content (67±0.78%) and displayed good essential amino acids (EAA) in sufficient quantities to meet the dietary requirements for humans. The EAA quantities of the conjugates decreased due to the MR treatment. The conjugates showed a significant decrease in the lysine content as a function of reaction temperature and time at 90 °C and 120 min, respectively. FTIR indicated that the amide I and II bands of the protein were altered by the MR. The increased T_max (the temperature at which decomposition is completed) demonstrated that the conjugation of the protein with glucose improved the thermal stability, remarkably. These results suggested that MR with glucose can be a promising way to improve the thermal properties of BSFL protein.

Multicomponent crystal formation of nitrofurazone was challenging when the experimental work was based on popular crystal engineering principles.