Rosa rugosa is an excellent aromatic plant species valued for both essential oil extraction and ornamental applications. This study aimed to evaluate its adaptive responses, bioaccumulation capacity, and production quality under cadmium (Cd) stress, providing insights for phytoremediation and sustainable agriculture. A controlled pot experiment was conducted using two cultivars (R. rugosa ‘Zizhi’ and its bud mutation R. rugosa ‘Baizizhi’) subjected to various Cd treatments. Growth parameters and physiological indices, such as antioxidant enzyme activities, chlorophyll content, photosynthesis rates, and floral volatile organic compounds, were systematically analyzed. Cd concentrations ranging from 5 to 50 mg·kg⁻¹ maintained plant growth, but significantly elevated antioxidant activities (SOD + 65.94–300.53%, POD + 37.58–75.06%, CAT + 12.48–12.62%) and chlorophyll content (+20.27–242.79%). In contrast, 400 mg·kg⁻¹ Cd severely inhibited growth, inducing chlorosis and leaf desiccation. Total floral volatiles showed a hormetic response, peaking at 200 mg·kg⁻¹ (+46.08%). Sesquiterpenoids showed greater Cd-responsiveness than monoterpenoids, though core aromatic profiles remained stable. The species exhibited root bioconcentration BAF > 0.1 and limited translocation TF < 1, indicating phytostabilization potential. Despite tolerance up to 400 mg·kg⁻¹, field application is recommended below 50 mg·kg⁻¹—a threshold exceeding China’s soil Cd limits (GB 15618-2018). These findings position it as a dual-purpose crop for ecological restoration and fragrance production in Cd-impacted areas.