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Background:Aim: To examine racial/ethnic variations in the effect of parents’ subjective neighborhood safety on children’s cognitive performance. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 10,027 children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The exposure variable was parents’ subjective neighborhood safety. The outcomes were three domains of children’s cognitive performance: general cognitive performance, executive functioning, and learning/memory. We used mixed-effects regression models for data analysis. Results: Overall, parents’ subjective neighborhood safety was positively associated with children’s executive functioning, but not general cognitive performance or learning/memory. Higher parents’ subjective neighborhood safety had a more positive influence on the executive functioning of non-Hispanic White than Asian American children. Higher parents’ subjective neighborhood safety was associated with higher general cognitive performance and learning/memory for non-White children relative to non-Hispanic White children. Conclusion: The race/ethnicity of children moderates the association between neighborhood safety and cognitive performance. This becomes more complicated, as the patterns seem to differ across ethnicity and cognitive domains. It is unknown whether the observed racial/ethnic variations in the effect of neighborhood safety on cognitive performance are neighborhood characteristics such as residential segregation. Addressing neighborhood inequalities is needed if we wish to reduce racial/ethnic inequities in the cognitive development of children.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Ritesh Mistry; Alvin Thomas; Harvey Nicholson; Ryon Cobb; Adolfo Cuevas; Daniel Lee; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Caldwell; Tommy Curry; Marc Zimmerman. Parents’ Perceived Neighborhood Safety and Children’s Cognitive Performance: Complexities by Race, Ethnicity, and Cognitive Domain. Urban Science 2021, 5, 46 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Ritesh Mistry, Alvin Thomas, Harvey Nicholson, Ryon Cobb, Adolfo Cuevas, Daniel Lee, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra Caldwell, Tommy Curry, Marc Zimmerman. Parents’ Perceived Neighborhood Safety and Children’s Cognitive Performance: Complexities by Race, Ethnicity, and Cognitive Domain. Urban Science. 2021; 5 (2):46.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Ritesh Mistry; Alvin Thomas; Harvey Nicholson; Ryon Cobb; Adolfo Cuevas; Daniel Lee; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Caldwell; Tommy Curry; Marc Zimmerman. 2021. "Parents’ Perceived Neighborhood Safety and Children’s Cognitive Performance: Complexities by Race, Ethnicity, and Cognitive Domain." Urban Science 5, no. 2: 46.
Family conflict is known to operate as a major risk factor for children’s suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs). However, it is unknown whether this effect is similar or different in Black and White children. Objectives: We compared Black and White children for the association between family conflict and STBs in a national sample of 9–10-year-old American children. Methods: This cross-sectional study used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. This study included 9918 White or Black children between the ages of 9 and 10 living in married households. The predictor variable was family conflict. Race was the moderator. The outcome variable was STBs, treated as a count variable, reflecting positive STB items that were endorsed. Covariates included ethnicity, sex, age, immigration status, family structure, parental education, and parental employment, and household income. Poisson regression was used for data analysis. Results: Of all participants, 7751 were Whites, and 2167 were Blacks. In the pooled sample and in the absence of interaction terms, high family conflict was associated with higher STBs. A statistically significant association was found between Black race and family conflict, suggesting that the association between family conflict and STBs is stronger in Black than White children. Conclusion: The association between family conflict and STBs is stronger in Black than White children. Black children with family conflict may be at a higher risk of STBs than White children with the same family conflict level. These findings align with the literature on the more significant salience of social relations as determinants of mental health of Black than White people. Reducing family conflict should be regarded a significant element of suicide prevention for Black children in the US.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Caldwell. Race, Family Conflict and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors among 9–10-Year-Old American Children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18, 5399 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra Caldwell. Race, Family Conflict and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors among 9–10-Year-Old American Children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18 (10):5399.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Caldwell. 2021. "Race, Family Conflict and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors among 9–10-Year-Old American Children." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 10: 5399.
Background: Recent studies have shown that parental educational attainment is associated with a larger superior temporal cortical surface area associated with higher reading ability in children. Simultaneously, the marginalization-related diminished returns (MDRs) framework suggests that, due to structural racism and social stratification, returns of parental education are smaller for black and other racial/ethnic minority children compared to their white counterparts. Purpose: This study used a large national sample of 9–10-year-old American children to investigate associations between parental educational attainment, the right and left superior temporal cortical surface area, and reading ability across diverse racial/ethnic groups. Methods: This was a cross-sectional analysis that included 10,817 9–10-year-old children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Parental educational attainment was treated as a five-level categorical variable. Children’s right and left superior temporal cortical surface area and reading ability were continuous variables. Race/ethnicity was the moderator. To adjust for the nested nature of the ABCD data, mixed-effects regression models were used to test the associations between parental education, superior temporal cortical surface area, and reading ability overall and by race/ethnicity. Results: Overall, high parental educational attainment was associated with greater superior temporal cortical surface area and reading ability in children. In the pooled sample, we found statistically significant interactions between race/ethnicity and parental educational attainment on children’s right and left superior temporal cortical surface area, suggesting that high parental educational attainment has a smaller boosting effect on children’s superior temporal cortical surface area for black than white children. We also found a significant interaction between race and the left superior temporal surface area on reading ability, indicating weaker associations for Alaskan Natives, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders (AIAN/NHPI) than white children. We also found interactions between race and parental educational attainment on reading ability, indicating more potent effects for black children than white children. Conclusion: While parental educational attainment may improve children’s superior temporal cortical surface area, promoting reading ability, this effect may be unequal across racial/ethnic groups. To minimize the racial/ethnic gap in children’s brain development and school achievement, we need to address societal barriers that diminish parental educational attainment’s marginal returns for middle-class minority families. Social and public policies need to go beyond equal access and address structural and societal barriers that hinder middle-class families of color and their children. Future research should test how racism, social stratification, segregation, and discrimination, which shape the daily lives of non-white individuals, take a toll on children’s brains and academic development.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Alvin Thomas; Ryon Cobb; Darrell Hudson; Tommy Curry; Harvey Nicholson; Adolfo Cuevas; Ritesh Mistry; Tabbye Chavous; Cleopatra Caldwell; Marc Zimmerman. Parental Educational Attainment, the Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area, and Reading Ability among American Children: A Test of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns. Children 2021, 8, 412 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Alvin Thomas, Ryon Cobb, Darrell Hudson, Tommy Curry, Harvey Nicholson, Adolfo Cuevas, Ritesh Mistry, Tabbye Chavous, Cleopatra Caldwell, Marc Zimmerman. Parental Educational Attainment, the Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area, and Reading Ability among American Children: A Test of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns. Children. 2021; 8 (5):412.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Alvin Thomas; Ryon Cobb; Darrell Hudson; Tommy Curry; Harvey Nicholson; Adolfo Cuevas; Ritesh Mistry; Tabbye Chavous; Cleopatra Caldwell; Marc Zimmerman. 2021. "Parental Educational Attainment, the Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area, and Reading Ability among American Children: A Test of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns." Children 8, no. 5: 412.
Introduction. The Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC) is a cortical structure that has implications in cognition, memory, reward anticipation, outcome evaluation, decision making, and learning. As such, OFC activity correlates with these cognitive brain abilities. Despite research suggesting race and socioeconomic status (SES) indicators such as parental education may be associated with OFC activity, limited knowledge exists on multiplicative effects of race and parental education on OFC activity and associated cognitive ability. Purpose. Using functional brain imaging data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, we tested the multiplicative effects of race and parental education on left lateral OFC activity during an N-Back task. In our study, we used a sociological rather than biological theory that conceptualizes race and SES as proxies of access to the opportunity structure and exposure to social adversities rather than innate and non-modifiable brain differences. We explored racial variation in the effect of parental educational attainment, a primary indicator of SES, on left lateral OFC activity during an N-Back task between Black and White 9–10 years old adolescents. Methods. The ABCD study is a national, landmark, multi-center brain imaging investigation of American adolescents. The total sample was 4290 9–10 years old Black or White adolescents. The independent variables were SES indicators, namely family income, parental education, and neighborhood income. The primary outcome was the average beta weight for N-Back (2 back versus 0 back contrast) in ASEG ROI left OFC activity, measured by functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) during an N-Back task. Ethnicity, age, sex, subjective SES, and family structure were the study covariates. For data analysis, we used linear regression models. Results. In White but not Black adolescents, parental education was associated with higher left lateral OFC activity during the N-Back task. In the pooled sample, we found a significant interaction between race and parental education on the outcome, suggesting that high parental education is associated with a larger increase in left OFC activity of White than Black adolescents. Conclusions. For American adolescents, race and SES jointly influence left lateral OFC activity correlated with cognition, memory, decision making, and learning. Given the central role of left lateral OFC activity in learning and memory, our finding calls for additional research on contextual factors that reduce the gain of SES for Black adolescents. Cognitive inequalities are not merely due to the additive effects of race and SES but also its multiplicative effects.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohammed Saqib; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Caldwell. Parental Education and Left Lateral Orbitofrontal Cortical Activity during N-Back Task: An fMRI Study of American Adolescents. Brain Sciences 2021, 11, 401 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohammed Saqib, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra Caldwell. Parental Education and Left Lateral Orbitofrontal Cortical Activity during N-Back Task: An fMRI Study of American Adolescents. Brain Sciences. 2021; 11 (3):401.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohammed Saqib; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Caldwell. 2021. "Parental Education and Left Lateral Orbitofrontal Cortical Activity during N-Back Task: An fMRI Study of American Adolescents." Brain Sciences 11, no. 3: 401.
The study aimed to investigate sex differences in the boosting effects of household income on children’s executive function in the US. This is a cross-sectional study using data from Wave 1 of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Wave 1 ABCD included 8608 American children between ages 9 and 10 years old. The independent variable was household income. The primary outcome was executive function measured by the stop-signal task. Overall, high household income was associated with higher levels of executive function in the children. Sex showed a statistically significant interaction with household income on children’s executive function, indicating a stronger effect of high household income for female compared to male children. Household income is a more salient determinant of executive function for female compared to male American children. Low-income female children remain at the highest risk regarding poor executive function.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Howard Caldwell. Sex Differences in the Association between Household Income and Children’s Executive Function. Sexes 2020, 1, 19 -31.
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra Howard Caldwell. Sex Differences in the Association between Household Income and Children’s Executive Function. Sexes. 2020; 1 (1):19-31.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Howard Caldwell. 2020. "Sex Differences in the Association between Household Income and Children’s Executive Function." Sexes 1, no. 1: 19-31.
Background: Based on the Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework, high socioeconomic status (SES) such as parental education shows weaker effects for Blacks than Whites. For example, high SES Black individuals report a high level of depression, anxiety, suicide, chronic disease, smoking, and mortality. Limited knowledge exists on MDRs of parental education on dietary behavior. Aims: Built on the MDRs framework, we tested the hypothesis of whether the effect of parental education on eating breakfast differs for Black compared to White families. We hypothesized that there is an association between mothers’ educational attainment and eating breakfast and compared Blacks and Whites for the effect of mothers’ educational attainment on the frequency of eating breakfast. Methods: The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study is a 15-year follow up study of a random sample of births in cities larger than 200,000 population. The predictor was parental education at birth. The outcome was the frequency of eating breakfast at age 15. Linear regression was used for data analysis. Results: Maternal educational attainment at birth was positively associated with youth frequency of eating breakfast among Whites, not Blacks. We also found a significant interaction between maternal educational attainment at birth and race, suggesting that the association between maternal education and youth frequency of eating breakfast at age 15 was weaker for Black than White families. Conclusions: Diminished returns of maternal educational attainment on healthy youth diet may contribute to the racial disparities in poor health of high SES Black families. That is, a smaller protective effect of maternal education on changing health behaviors for Black than White youth may be one of the mechanisms by which health is worse than expected in high SES Black families. The health disparities are not only due to racial differences in SES but also the diminishing returns of socioeconomic status indicators such as education for racial minorities. Research should study contextual and structural factors that reduce Black families’ ability to mobilize their human capital and secure health outcomes in urban settings.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell; Ron Mincy. Maternal Education at Birth and Youth Breakfast Consumption at Age 15: Blacks’ Diminished Returns. J 2020, 3, 313 -323.
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra H. Caldwell, Ron Mincy. Maternal Education at Birth and Youth Breakfast Consumption at Age 15: Blacks’ Diminished Returns. J. 2020; 3 (3):313-323.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell; Ron Mincy. 2020. "Maternal Education at Birth and Youth Breakfast Consumption at Age 15: Blacks’ Diminished Returns." J 3, no. 3: 313-323.
Introduction: Hippocampus, a medial temporal lobe structure, has significant implications in memory formation and learning. Although hippocampus activity is believed to be affected by socioeconomic status (SES), limited knowledge exists on which SES indicators influence hippocampus function. Purpose: This study explored the separate and combined effects of three SES indicators, namely parental education, family income, and neighborhood income, on adolescents’ hippocampus activation during an N-Back memory task. As some of the effects of parental education may be through income, we also tested if the effect of parental education on hippocampus activation during our N-Back memory task is mediated by family or neighborhood income. Methods: The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study is a national multi-center investigation of American adolescents’ brain development. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data of a total sample of 3067 9–10-year-old adolescents were used. The primary outcome was left- hippocampus activation during the N-Back memory task (mean beta weight for N-Back run 1 2 back versus 0 back contrast in left hippocampus). The independent variable was parental education. Family income and neighborhood income were two possible mediators. Age, sex, and marital status were the covariates. To test mediation, we used hierarchical linear regression models first without and then with our mediators. Full mediation was defined according to Kenny. The Sobel test was used to confirm statistical mediation. Results: In the absence of family and neighborhood income in the model, higher parental educational attainment was associated with lower level of left hippocampus activation during the N-Back memory task. This effect was significant while age, sex, and marital status were controlled. The association between parental educational attainment and hippocampus activation during the N-Back memory task was no more significant when we controlled for family and neighborhood income. Instead, family income was associated with hippocampus activation during the N-Back memory task. These findings suggested that family income fully mediates the effect of parental educational attainment on left hippocampus activation during the N-Back memory task. Conclusions: The effect of parental educational attainment on adolescents’ hippocampus activation during an N-Back memory task is fully explained by family income. That means low family income is why adolescents with low-educated parents show highlighted hippocampus activation during an N-Back memory task. Given the central role of the hippocampus in learning and memory and as income is a modifiable factor by tax and economic policies, income-redistribution policies, fair taxation, and higher minimum wage may have implications for promotion of adolescent equality and social justice. There is a need to focus on family-level economic needs across all levels of neighborhood income.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Family Income Mediates the Effect of Parental Education on Adolescents’ Hippocampus Activation During an N-Back Memory Task. Brain Sciences 2020, 10, 520 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Family Income Mediates the Effect of Parental Education on Adolescents’ Hippocampus Activation During an N-Back Memory Task. Brain Sciences. 2020; 10 (8):520.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. 2020. "Family Income Mediates the Effect of Parental Education on Adolescents’ Hippocampus Activation During an N-Back Memory Task." Brain Sciences 10, no. 8: 520.
Although early sexual initiation and childbearing are major barriers against the upward social mobility of American adolescents, particularly those who belong to a low socioeconomic status (SES) and racial minorities such as Blacks, less is known on how SES and race correlate with adolescents’ sex hormones. An understanding of the associations between race and SES with adolescents’ sex hormones may help better understand why racial, and SES gaps exist in sexual risk behaviors and teen pregnancies. To extend the existing knowledge on social patterning of adolescents’ sex hormones, in the current study, we studied social patterning of sex hormones in a national sample of male and female American adolescents, with a particular interest in the role of race and SES. For this cross-sectional study, data came from the baseline data (wave 1) of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, a national longitudinal prospective study of American adolescents. This analysis included 717 male and 576 female non-Hispanic White or Black adolescents ages 9–10. The dependent variables were sex hormones (testosterone for males and estradiol for females). Independent variables were age, race, family marital status, parental education, and financial difficulties. For data analysis, linear regression models were used. Age, race, parental education, and financial difficulties were associated with estradiol in female and testosterone levels in male adolescents. Associations were not identical for males and females, but the patterns were mainly similar. Low SES explained why race is associated with higher estradiol in female adolescents. Marital status of the family did not correlate with any of the sex hormones. Being Black and low SES were associated with a higher level of sex hormones in male and female adolescents. This information may help us understand the social patterning of sexual initiation and childbearing. Addressing racial and economic inequalities in early puberty, sexual initiation, and childbearing is an essential part of closing the racial and economic gaps in the US.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Sex Hormones among Male and Female American Adolescents. Reproductive Medicine 2020, 1, 108 -121.
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Sex Hormones among Male and Female American Adolescents. Reproductive Medicine. 2020; 1 (2):108-121.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. 2020. "Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Sex Hormones among Male and Female American Adolescents." Reproductive Medicine 1, no. 2: 108-121.
Background: Reward sensitivity (fun-seeking) is a risk factor for a wide range of high-risk behaviors. While high socioeconomic status (SES) is known to reduce reward sensitivity and associated high-risk behaviors, less is known about the differential effects of SES on reward sensitivity. It is plausible to expect weaker protective effects of family SES on reward sensitivity in racial minorities, a pattern called Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs). Aim: We compared Caucasian and African American (AA) children for the effects of subjective family SES on children’s fun-seeking. Methods: This was a cross-sectional analysis of 7061 children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variable was subjective family SES. The main outcome was children’s fun-seeking measured by the behavioral approach system (BAS) and behavioral avoidance system (BIS). Age, gender, marital status, and household size were the covariates. Results: In the overall sample, high subjective family SES was associated with lower levels of fun-seeking. We also found a statistically significant interaction between race and subjective family SES on children’s fun-seeking in the overall sample, suggesting that high subjective family SES is associated with a weaker effect on reducing fun-seeking among AA than Caucasian children. In race-stratified models, high subjective family SES was protective against fun-seeking of Caucasian but not AA children. Conclusion: Subjective family SES reduces the fun-seeking for Caucasian but not AA children.
Shervin Assari; Golnoush Akhlaghipour; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. African American Children’s Diminished Returns of Subjective Family Socioeconomic Status on Fun Seeking. Children 2020, 7, 75 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Golnoush Akhlaghipour, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra H. Caldwell. African American Children’s Diminished Returns of Subjective Family Socioeconomic Status on Fun Seeking. Children. 2020; 7 (7):75.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Golnoush Akhlaghipour; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. 2020. "African American Children’s Diminished Returns of Subjective Family Socioeconomic Status on Fun Seeking." Children 7, no. 7: 75.
Background: Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) refer to systemically weaker effects of socioeconomic status (SES) indicators on various developmental, behavioral, and health outcomes of ethnic minorities compared to non-Hispanic (non-Latino) Whites. Similar MDRs also exist for the effects of parental education on the school performance of ethnic minority youth. Aim: To assess whether regression toward the mean (RTM) has any role in explaining the diminished effects of parental education on the school performance of Black and Hispanic youth relative to non-Hispanic White youth. Materials and methods: Data for this cross-sectional study came from the Monitoring the Future survey (MTF, 2017), a nationally representative survey of American youth in 12th grade. The sample included 10,262 youth who were 12th graders (typically 17–18 years old). The independent variable was parental education with five categories: Some high school, High school graduate, Some college, College graduate, and Graduate school. The outcome was self-reported school performance measured as grade point average (GPA). Ethnicity was the effect modifier. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Tukey Post Hoc test was used to analyze the data. Data visualization (line graphs) was used to visualize the shape of youth GPA as a function of parental education levels across ethnic groups. Results: While a perfect stepwise increase was seen in youth school performance as a result of parental education improvement, this pattern differed considerably across ethnic groups. Such a perfect stepwise increase in youth school performance as a result of the incremental increase in parental education was missing for Black and Hispanic youth. The shape of the association between parental education and youth school performance ruled out regression toward the mean (RTM) as an explanation for the observed diminished effects of parental education on the school performance of Black and Hispanic youth. Conclusion: Diminished returns of parental education on the school performance of Black and Hispanic youth cannot be explained by regression toward the mean. Other factors and contextual processes, such as segregation, discrimination, racism, and poor quality of schools in urban areas, should be investigated in future research.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Caldwell. Diminished Returns of Parental Education in Terms of Youth School Performance: Ruling out Regression toward the Mean. Children 2020, 7, 74 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra Caldwell. Diminished Returns of Parental Education in Terms of Youth School Performance: Ruling out Regression toward the Mean. Children. 2020; 7 (7):74.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Caldwell. 2020. "Diminished Returns of Parental Education in Terms of Youth School Performance: Ruling out Regression toward the Mean." Children 7, no. 7: 74.
Background: Brookings Institution has identified postponing childbirth from teenage to adulthood as a major strategy that is needed for upward social mobility of women. However, according to the Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs), the associations between aspirations, investments, behaviors, and socioeconomic position (SEP) may be diminished for marginalized groups such as African Americans. Objective: To extend the existing knowledge on the MDRs, the current study had two aims: First to compare White and African American women for the association between postponing childbearing to adulthood and SEP in a national sample of American women. Second, to test correlates of postponing childbearing to adulthood and SEP at birth with long term outcomes 15 years later when the child was 15 years old. Methods: For this longitudinal study, data came from the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study (FFCWS), a national longitudinal prospective study in the United States (US) that followed an ethnically diverse sample of women from childbirth for 15 years from 1998 to 2016. For the first aim, this study included 2679 women composed of 723 Whites and 1956 African Americans. For the second aim, among 1842 individuals who had available data 15 years later, we measured various economic, behavioral, and mental health outcomes when the child was 15 years old. For aim 1 we ran linear regression. Postponing childbearing to adulthood was the independent variable. The dependent variable, SEP (poverty) was treated as a continuous measure with higher score indicating more poverty. Confounders included marital status and delivery characteristics. For the aim 2, we ran Pearson correlation test (exploratory analysis) to test if baseline SEP correlates with future outcomes. Results: Postponing childbearing from adolescence to adulthood was associated with higher SEP in adulthood, net of all confounders including marital status and education. We found a significant interaction between postponing childbearing from adolescence to adulthood and race on SEP, suggesting that the economic reward of postponing childbearing may be weaker for African American women than for White women. Conclusions: Although postponing the age at childbirth is a recommended strategy for women who wish to maximize their chance of upward social mobility, this strategy may be associated with smaller economic returns for African American women than White women. The results can also be interpreted as MDRs in investments in terms of a postponing childbearing. In a fair society, the same investment should be similarly rewarded across diverse racial groups. In the reality, however, the US society differently rewards White and African American women who postpone childbearing. Research should explore the roles of social stratification, blocked opportunities, and concentrated poverty in explaining the unequal return of such an investment for African American and White women.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. A Dream Deferred: African American Women’s Diminished Socioeconomic Returns of Postponing Childbearing from Teenage to Adulthood. Reproductive Medicine 2020, 1, 62 -76.
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra H. Caldwell. A Dream Deferred: African American Women’s Diminished Socioeconomic Returns of Postponing Childbearing from Teenage to Adulthood. Reproductive Medicine. 2020; 1 (2):62-76.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. 2020. "A Dream Deferred: African American Women’s Diminished Socioeconomic Returns of Postponing Childbearing from Teenage to Adulthood." Reproductive Medicine 1, no. 2: 62-76.
Background: Based on the Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework, indicators of high socioeconomic status, such as higher family income, show weaker protective effects on various developmental, behavioral, and health outcomes for Black than White families. As a result of these MDRs, Black families who access education and income still report high levels of depression, smoking, obesity, and chronic disease. Limited knowledge exists on MDRs of income on neighborhood quality. Aims: Built on the MDRs framework, this study tested the hypothesis of whether the effect of family income and maternal education at birth on neighborhood gang presence varies between Black and White families. The hypotheses were that: (1) higher income families would report lower gang presence in their neighborhood, and (2) compared to Whites, Blacks would show weaker protective effects of family income on gang presence in their neighborhood. Methods: The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study is a 15-year follow up study of a random sample of births in cities with larger than 200,000 population. Two thousand nine hundred and nineteen White or Black families were included and were followed from birth of their child for 15 years. The predictors were family income and maternal education at birth, treated as categorical variables. The outcome was gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15. Logistic regression was used for data analysis. Results: Higher maternal education at birth was inversely associated with gang presence in the neighborhoods, while family income at birth did not show an effect on reducing gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15. Family income at birth and race interact, suggesting that the association between family income at birth and gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15 was weaker for Black than White families. Our race-stratified models also showed an inverse effect of family income at birth on gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15 in White but not Black families. Conclusions: Diminished returns of family income at birth on neighborhood safety and social disorder may be a mechanism that contributes to racial health disparities in higher socioeconomic status and also poor outcomes for Black families across socioeconomic status (SES) levels. That is, a smaller protective effect of family income on changing the real lives of Black compared to White families may be one of the mechanisms by which health is worse than expected in Black families, across the entire SES spectrum. The health, behavioral, and developmental disparities are not only due to the racial gap in SES but also diminishing returns of socioeconomic status indicators such as family income for racial minorities. Research should study contextual and structural factors that reduce Black families’ ability to mobilize their human capital and secure health outcomes in urban settings.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Cleopatra H. Caldwell; Mohsen Bazargan; Ron Mincy. Family Income and Gang Presence in the Neighborhood: Diminished Returns of Black Families. Urban Science 2020, 4, 29 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Cleopatra H. Caldwell, Mohsen Bazargan, Ron Mincy. Family Income and Gang Presence in the Neighborhood: Diminished Returns of Black Families. Urban Science. 2020; 4 (2):29.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Cleopatra H. Caldwell; Mohsen Bazargan; Ron Mincy. 2020. "Family Income and Gang Presence in the Neighborhood: Diminished Returns of Black Families." Urban Science 4, no. 2: 29.
(1) Background: Reward responsiveness (RR) is a risk factor for high-risk behaviors such as aggressive behaviors and early sexual initiation, which are all reported to be higher in African American and low socioeconomic status adolescents. At the same time, parental education is one of the main drivers of reward responsiveness among adolescents. It is still unknown if some of this racial and economic gap is attributed to weaker effects of parental education for African Americans, a pattern also called minorities’ diminished returns (MDRs). (2) Aim: We compared non-Hispanic White and African American adolescents for the effects of parent education on adolescents RR, a psychological and cognitive construct that is closely associated with high-risk behaviors such as the use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco. (3) Methods: This was a cross-sectional analysis that included 7072 adolescents from the adolescent brain cognitive development (ABCD) study. The independent variable was parent education. The main outcome as adolescents’ RR measured by the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS) measure. (4) Results: In the overall sample, high parent education was associated with lower levels of RR. In the overall sample, we found a statistically significant interaction between race and parent education on adolescents’ RR. The observed statistical interaction term suggested that high parent education is associated with a weaker effect on RR for African American than non-Hispanic White adolescents. In race-stratified models, high parent education was only associated with lower RR for non-Hispanic White but not African American adolescents. (5) Conclusion: Parent education reduces RR for non-Hispanic White but not African American adolescents. To minimize the racial gap in brain development and risk-taking behaviors, we need to address societal barriers that diminish the returns of parent education and resources in African American families. We need public and social policies that target structural and societal barriers, such as the unequal distribution of opportunities and resources. To meet such an aim, we need to reduce the negative effects of social stratification, segregation, racism, and discrimination in the daily lives of African American parents and families. Through an approach like this, African American families and parents can effectively mobilize their resources and utilize their human capital to secure the best possible tangible outcomes for their adolescents.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Golnoush Akhlaghipour; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Reward Responsiveness in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study: African Americans’ Diminished Returns of Parental Education. Brain Sciences 2020, 10, 391 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Golnoush Akhlaghipour, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Reward Responsiveness in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study: African Americans’ Diminished Returns of Parental Education. Brain Sciences. 2020; 10 (6):391.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Golnoush Akhlaghipour; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. 2020. "Reward Responsiveness in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study: African Americans’ Diminished Returns of Parental Education." Brain Sciences 10, no. 6: 391.
To investigate racial and ethnic differences in the protective effects of parental education and marital status against adolescents’ depressed mood and suicidal attempts in the U.S. As proposed by the Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs), parental education generates fewer tangible outcomes for non-White compared to White families. Our existing knowledge is very limited regarding diminished returns of parental education and marital status on adolescents’ depressed mood and suicidal attempts. To compare racial groups for the effects of parental education and marital status on adolescents’ depressed mood and suicidal attempt. This cross-sectional study included 7076 non-Hispanic White or African American 8-11 years old adolescents from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variables were parental education and marital status. The main outcomes were depressed mood and suicidal attempts based on parents’ reports using the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS). Age and gender were the covariates. Race was the moderator. Logistic regression was used to analyze the ABCD data. Overall, parental education was associated with lower odds of depressed mood (OR = 0.81; 95% CI = 0.67–0.99; p = 0.037) and having married parents was associated with lower odds of suicidal attempts (OR = 0.50; 95% CI = 0.28–0.91; p = 0.022). In the pooled sample, we found interaction terms between race with parental education and marital status on the outcomes, suggesting that the protective effect of having married parents against depressed mood (OR = 1.54; 95% CI = 1.00–2.37; p = 0.048) and the protective effect of having married parents against suicidal attempts (OR = 6.62; 95% CI = 2.21–19.86; p = 0.001) are weaker for African Americans when compared to Whites. The protective effects of parent education and marital status against depressed mood and suicidal attempts are diminished for African American adolescents compared to White adolescents. There is a need for programs and interventions that equalize not only socioeconomic status (SES) but also the marginal returns of SES for racial minority groups. Such efforts require addressing structural and societal barriers that hinder African American families from translating their SES resources and human capital into tangible outcomes. There is a need for studies that can minimize MDRs for African American families, so that every individual and every family can benefit from their resources regardless of their skin color. To achieve such a goal, we need to help middle-class African American families secure tangible outcomes in the presence of SES resources.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Caldwell. African Americans’ Diminished Returns of Parental Education on Adolescents’ Depression and Suicide in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education 2020, 10, 656 -668.
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra Caldwell. African Americans’ Diminished Returns of Parental Education on Adolescents’ Depression and Suicide in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education. 2020; 10 (2):656-668.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra Caldwell. 2020. "African Americans’ Diminished Returns of Parental Education on Adolescents’ Depression and Suicide in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study." European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education 10, no. 2: 656-668.
Aim: To compare racial groups for the effect of parental educational attainment on adolescents’ social, emotional, and behavioral problems. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 10,762 youth from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study were included. The independent variable was parental educational attainment. The main outcomes were (1) anxious and depressed mood, (2) withdrawn and depressed affect, (3) somatic complaints, (4) social and interpersonal problems, (5) thought problems, (6) rule-breaking behaviors, (7) attention problems, and (8) violent and aggressive behaviors. These scores were generated based on parent-reported behavioral problems measured using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Race and ethnicity were the moderators. Linear regression was used to analyze the ABCD data. Results: Overall, high parental educational attainment was associated with lower scores across all domains. Race and ethnicity showed statistically significant interactions with parental educational attainment on adolescents’ fewer social, emotional, and behavioral problems (all domains), net of all confounders, indicating smaller tangible gains from their parental educational attainment for Black and Hispanic compared to non-Hispanic White adolescents. Conclusions: The protective effects of parental education against social, emotional, and behavioral problems are systematically diminished for Hispanic and Black than non-Hispanic White adolescents.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Cleopatra Caldwell; Mohsen Bazargan. Minorities’ Diminished Returns of Parental Educational Attainment on Adolescents’ Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Problems. Children 2020, 7, 49 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Cleopatra Caldwell, Mohsen Bazargan. Minorities’ Diminished Returns of Parental Educational Attainment on Adolescents’ Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Problems. Children. 2020; 7 (5):49.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Cleopatra Caldwell; Mohsen Bazargan. 2020. "Minorities’ Diminished Returns of Parental Educational Attainment on Adolescents’ Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Problems." Children 7, no. 5: 49.
Background: Recent research has documented marginalization-related diminished returns (MDRs) of socioeconomic status (SES), defined as weaker effects of SES indicators, such as parental educational attainment, on securing tangible outcomes for the members of socially marginalized (e.g., racial and ethnic minority) groups, compared to privileged social groups (e.g., non-Hispanic Whites). Aims: To explore race/ethnic differences between non-Hispanic Blacks vs. non-Hispanic Whites who attend urban public schools on the effect of parental education on lower school environmental risk among American high schoolers. Methods: For this cross-sectional study, we borrowed the Education Longitudinal Study (ELS-2002) baseline data, a nationally representative study that enrolled 1706 10th grade youths who were attending urban public schools. From this number, 805 (47.2%) were non-Hispanic Black and 901 (52.8%) were non-Hispanic White youths. The dependent variable was the level of school social environmental risk measured using 18 items as self-reported, and was treated as a continuous variable. The independent variable was parental educational attainment, treated as a continuous measure. Gender, region, and parental marital status were the covariates. Race/ethnicity was the moderating variable. Linear regressions were applied to perform our data analysis. Results: Black students were found to attend schools with higher levels of social environmental risk. Youths with parents with a higher educational attainment were found to attend schools with a lower social environmental risk. We found a significant interaction between race (non-Hispanic Black vs. non-Hispanic White) and parental educational attainment on the level of school social environmental risk, suggesting that the protective effect of high parental education on reducing the school social environmental risk was smaller for non-Hispanic Black than for non-Hispanic White youths. Conclusions: Although high parental educational attainment is protective against social environmental risk for American youths, this protective effect is weaker for non-Hispanic Black than non-Hispanic White youths. The diminished returns of parental education in reducing school social environmental risk may explain why the effects of parental education on educational outcomes are smaller for non-Hispanic Black than non-Hispanic White youths (i.e., MDRs). The social environment indirectly generates racial youth educational disparities through deteriorating non-Hispanic Black youth educational outcomes across all SES levels. To prevent the confounding effects of private, suburban, rural, and Catholic schools, we limited this analysis to public urban schools. More research is needed on other settings.
Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell; Marc A. Zimmerman; Shervin Assari. Parental Educational Attainment and Social Environment of Urban Public Schools in the U.S.: Blacks’ Diminished Returns. Children 2020, 7, 44 .
AMA StyleShanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra H. Caldwell, Marc A. Zimmerman, Shervin Assari. Parental Educational Attainment and Social Environment of Urban Public Schools in the U.S.: Blacks’ Diminished Returns. Children. 2020; 7 (5):44.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell; Marc A. Zimmerman; Shervin Assari. 2020. "Parental Educational Attainment and Social Environment of Urban Public Schools in the U.S.: Blacks’ Diminished Returns." Children 7, no. 5: 44.
Financial stress has adverse consequences for health. However, the association between individual and cumulative associations of multiple financial stressors and serious psychological distress (SPD) is unclear. Using data from the 2017 National Health Interview Survey, we examined cross-sectional associations between perceived financial worries, healthcare insecurity, food insecurity, and SPD among 23,317 US adults. Associations were examined using logistic regression. Among US adults in 2017, the overall prevalence of SPD was 3.6%. Among those with SPD, 85.5% were financially worried, 50.3% were food insecure, and 51.2% were healthcare insecure. Financial worries (OR 4.27; CI 3.31, 5.52), food insecurity (OR 2.34; CI 1.92, 2.85), and healthcare insecurity (OR 2.26; CI 1.85, 2.76) were each associated with higher odds of SPD. A dose–response association was found between the number of stressors and SPD. Each financial stressor was adversely associated with SPD both individually and cumulatively, indicating the adverse effects of the accumulation of these stressors. Additional studies are needed to understand the longitudinal effects of multiple financial stressors on mental health outcomes.
Kazumi Tsuchiya; Cindy W. Leung; Andrew D. Jones; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Multiple financial stressors and serious psychological distress among adults in the USA. International Journal of Public Health 2020, 65, 335 -344.
AMA StyleKazumi Tsuchiya, Cindy W. Leung, Andrew D. Jones, Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Multiple financial stressors and serious psychological distress among adults in the USA. International Journal of Public Health. 2020; 65 (3):335-344.
Chicago/Turabian StyleKazumi Tsuchiya; Cindy W. Leung; Andrew D. Jones; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. 2020. "Multiple financial stressors and serious psychological distress among adults in the USA." International Journal of Public Health 65, no. 3: 335-344.
The Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDR) phenomenon refers to the weaker effects of parental educational attainment for marginalized groups, particularly ethnic minorities. This literature, however, is limited to Blacks and Hispanics; thus, it is not clear if the MDR phenomenon also applies to the educational performance of Asian Americans or not. To explore ethnic differences in the association between parental educational attainment and youth mathematical performance among 10th-grade American high schoolers, this cross-sectional study used baseline data from the Education Longitudinal Study, a national survey of 10th-grade American youth. The analytical sample included a total number of 10,142 youth composed of 1460 (14.4%) Asian-American and 8682 (85.6%) non-Hispanic youth. The dependent variable was youth math performance (standard test score). The independent variable was parental education. Gender, both parents living in the same household, and school characteristics (% students receiving free lunch, urban school, and public school) were the covariates. Ethnicity was the moderating variable. Linear regression was used for data analysis. Overall, parental educational attainment was positively associated with math ability (test score). We observed a statistically significant interaction between ethnicity (Asian American) and parental education attainment on the results of math test scores, indicating that the boosting effect of high parental educational attainment on youth math function is smaller for Asian-American youth than for Non-Hispanic White youth. While high parental educational attainment contributes to youth educational outcomes, this association is weaker for Asian-American youth than non-Hispanic White youth. Diminished returns (weaker effects of parental education in generating outcomes for ethnic minorities) that are previously shown for Hispanics and Blacks also apply to Asian Americans.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Mathematical Performance of American Youth: Diminished Returns of Educational Attainment of Asian-American Parents. Education Sciences 2020, 10, 32 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Mathematical Performance of American Youth: Diminished Returns of Educational Attainment of Asian-American Parents. Education Sciences. 2020; 10 (2):32.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. 2020. "Mathematical Performance of American Youth: Diminished Returns of Educational Attainment of Asian-American Parents." Education Sciences 10, no. 2: 32.
Background: Parental educational attainment is shown to be protective against health problems; the Minorities’ Diminished Returns theory, however, posits that these protective effects tend to be smaller for socially marginalized groups particularly blacks than whites. Aims: To explore racial differences in the effect of parental educational attainment on body mass index (BMI) in a national sample of US adolescents. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, we used baseline data of 10,701 (8678 white and 2023 black) 12–17 years old adolescents in the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH; 2013). Parental educational attainment was the predictor. Youth BMI (based on self-reported weight and height) was the dependent variable. Age, gender, ethnicity, and family structure were covariates. Race was the focal moderator. Results: Overall, higher parental educational attainment was associated with lower youth BMI. Race, however, moderated the effect of parental educational attainment on BMI, suggesting that the protective effect of parenting educational attainment on BMI is significantly smaller for black than white youth. Conclusions: In the United States, race alters the health gains that are expected to follow parental educational attainment. While white youth who are from highly educated families are fit, black youth have high BMI at all levels of parental educational attainment. This means, while the most socially privileged group, whites, gain the most health from their parental education, blacks, the least privileged group, gain the least. Economic, social, public, and health policymakers should be aware that health disparities are not all due to lower socioeconomic status (SES) of the disadvantaged group but also diminished returns of SES resources for them. Black–white health disparities exist across all high socioeconomic status (SES) levels.
Shervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Ron Mincy; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Unequal Protective Effects of Parental Educational Attainment on the Body Mass Index of Black and White Youth. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2019, 16, 3641 .
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Ron Mincy, Cleopatra H. Caldwell. Unequal Protective Effects of Parental Educational Attainment on the Body Mass Index of Black and White Youth. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16 (19):3641.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Shanika Boyce; Mohsen Bazargan; Ron Mincy; Cleopatra H. Caldwell. 2019. "Unequal Protective Effects of Parental Educational Attainment on the Body Mass Index of Black and White Youth." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 19: 3641.
Psychological stressors such as violence victimization are known contributors to obesity. However, moderators and mediators of this association have not been studied, although they might offer pathways for intervention or prevention. Using a sample of African American young adults, this study tested: (1) the moderating effect of sex on the effect of violence victimization on trajectories of body mass index (BMI), and (2) the mediating effect of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) on this association. This 13-year longitudinal study followed 73 male and 80 female African American young adults who lived in an urban area from 1999 to 2012 when the youth were 20–32 years old. The independent variable was violence victimization measured in 1999 and 2000. The dependent variable was BMI measured in 2002 and 2012. The mediator was DHEA measured in 2001 and 2002. Multilevel path analysis was used to test if males and females differed in violence victimization predicting change in BMI (Model I) and the mediating effect of DHEA change on the above association (Model II). The results of Model I suggested that the change in violence victimization from 1999 to 2000 predicted change in BMI from 2002 to 2012 for females, but not males. Based on Model II, the DHEA change from 2000 to 2001 for females fully mediated the association between violence victimization from 1999 to 2000 and increases in BMI from 2002 to 2012. Our findings suggest that violence victimization in urban areas contributes to the development of obesity among African American female young adults and change in DHEA mediates this link. Violence prevention may have important implications for obesity prevention of African American young women who live in unsafe urban areas. This study also suggests that DHEA may be involved in the violence victimization–obesity link for African American women.
Shervin Assari; Cleopatra Howard Caldwell; James L. Abelson; Marc Zimmerman. Violence Victimization Predicts Body Mass Index One Decade Later among an Urban Sample of African American Young Adults: Sex as a Moderator and Dehydroepiandrosterone as a Mediator. Journal of Urban Health 2019, 96, 632 -643.
AMA StyleShervin Assari, Cleopatra Howard Caldwell, James L. Abelson, Marc Zimmerman. Violence Victimization Predicts Body Mass Index One Decade Later among an Urban Sample of African American Young Adults: Sex as a Moderator and Dehydroepiandrosterone as a Mediator. Journal of Urban Health. 2019; 96 (4):632-643.
Chicago/Turabian StyleShervin Assari; Cleopatra Howard Caldwell; James L. Abelson; Marc Zimmerman. 2019. "Violence Victimization Predicts Body Mass Index One Decade Later among an Urban Sample of African American Young Adults: Sex as a Moderator and Dehydroepiandrosterone as a Mediator." Journal of Urban Health 96, no. 4: 632-643.