Lithium-ion batteries experience degradation with each cycle, and while aging-related deterioration cannot be entirely prevented, understanding its underlying mechanisms is crucial to slowing it down. The aging processes in these batteries are complex and influenced by factors such as battery chemistry, electrochemical reactions, and operational conditions. Key stressors including depth of discharge, charge/discharge rates, cycle count, and temperature fluctuations or extreme temperature conditions play a significant role in accelerating degradation, making them central to aging analysis. Battery aging directly impacts power, energy density, and reliability, presenting a substantial challenge to extending battery lifespan across diverse applications. This paper provides a comprehensive review of methods for modeling and analyzing battery aging, focusing on essential indicators for assessing the health status of lithium-ion batteries. It examines the principles of battery lifespan modeling, which are vital for applications such as portable electronics, electric vehicles, and grid energy storage systems. This work aims to advance battery technology and promote sustainable resource use by understanding the variables influencing battery durability. Synthesizing a wide array of studies on battery aging, the review identifies gaps in current methodologies and highlights innovative approaches for accurate remaining useful life (RUL) estimation. It introduces emerging strategies that leverage advanced algorithms to improve predictive model precision, ultimately driving enhancements in battery performance and supporting their integration into various systems, from electric vehicles to renewable energy infrastructures.

Energy storage systems (ESSs) and electric vehicle (EV) batteries depend on battery management systems (BMSs) for their longevity, safety, and effectiveness. Battery modeling is crucial to the operation of BMSs, as it enhances temperature control, fault detection, and state estimation, thereby maximizing efficiency and preventing malfunctions. This paper thoroughly examines the most recent advancements in battery and BMS modeling, including data-driven, thermal, and electrochemical methods. Advanced modeling approaches are explored, including physics-based models that incorporate mechanical stress and aging effects, as well as artificial intelligence (AI)-driven state estimation. New technologies that facilitate data-driven decision-making, real-time monitoring, and simplified systems include digital twins (DTs), cloud computing, and wireless BMSs. Nonetheless, there are still issues with cost optimization, cybersecurity, and computing efficiency. This study presents key advancements in battery modeling and BMS applications, including defect diagnostics, temperature management, and state-of-health (SOH) prediction. A comparison of machine learning (ML) methods for SOH prediction is given, emphasizing how well neural networks (NNs) and transfer learning function with real-world datasets. Additionally, future research objectives are described, with an emphasis on next-generation sensor technologies, cloud-based BMSs, and hybrid algorithms. Distinct from existing reviews, this paper integrates academic modeling with industrial benchmarking and highlights the convergence of hybrid physics-informed and data-driven techniques, multi-physics simulations, and intelligent architecture. For high-performance EV applications, this analysis offers insight into creating more intelligent, adaptable, and secure BMSs by addressing current constraints and utilizing state-of-the-art technologies.

Accurately forecasting the operating temperature of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is essential for preventing thermal runaway, extending service life, and ensuring the safe operation of electric vehicles and stationary energy-storage systems. This work introduces a unified, physics-informed, and data-driven temperature-prediction framework that integrates mathematically governed preprocessing, electrothermal decomposition, and sequential deep learning architectures. The methodology systematically applies the governing relations to convert raw temperature measurements into trend, seasonal, and residual components, thereby isolating long-term thermal accumulation, reversible entropy-driven oscillations, and irreversible resistive heating. These physically interpretable signatures serve as structured inputs to machine learning and deep learning models trained on temporally segmented temperature sequences. Among all evaluated predictors, the Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (BiLSTM) network achieved the highest prediction fidelity, yielding an RMSE of 0.018 °C, a 35.7% improvement over the conventional Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) (RMSE = 0.028 °C) due to its ability to simultaneously encode forward and backward temporal dependencies inherent in cyclic electrochemical operation. While CatBoost exhibited the strongest performance among classical regressors (RMSE = 0.022 °C), outperforming Random Forest, Gradient Boosting, Support Vector Regression, XGBoost, and LightGBM, it remained inferior to BiLSTM because it lacks the capacity to represent bidirectional electrothermal dynamics. This performance hierarchy confirms that LIB thermal evolution is not dictated solely by historical load sequences; it also depends on forthcoming cycling patterns and entropic interactions, which unidirectional and memoryless models cannot capture. The resulting hybrid physics-data-driven framework provides a reliable surrogate for real-time LIB thermal estimation and can be directly embedded within BMS to enable proactive intervention strategies such as predictive cooling activation, current derating, and early detection of hazardous thermal conditions. By coupling physics-based decomposition with deep sequential learning, this study establishes a validated foundation for next-generation LIB thermal-management platforms and identifies a clear trajectory for future work extending the methodology to module- and pack-level systems suitable for industrial deployment.

Accurate estimation of lithium-ion battery (LIB) state of health (SOH) underpins safe operation, predictive maintenance, and lifetime-aware energy management. Despite recent advances in machine learning (ML), systematic benchmarking across heterogeneous real-world cells remains limited, often confounded by data leakage and inconsistent validation. Here, we establish a leakage-averse, cross-battery evaluation framework encompassing 32 commercial LIBs (B5–B56) spanning diverse cycling histories and temperatures (≈4 °C, 24 °C, 43 °C). Models ranging from classical regressors to ensemble trees and deep sequence architectures were assessed under blocked 5-fold GroupKFold splits using RMSE, MAE, R² with confidence intervals, and inference latency. The results reveal distinct stratification among model families. Sequence-based architectures—CNN–LSTM, GRU, and LSTM—consistently achieved the highest accuracy (mean RMSE ≈ 0.006; per-cell R² up to 0.996), demonstrating strong generalization across regimes. Gradient-boosted ensembles such as LightGBM and CatBoost delivered competitive mid-tier accuracy (RMSE ≈ 0.012–0.015) yet unrivaled computational efficiency (≈0.001–0.003 ms), confirming their suitability for embedded applications. Transformer-based hybrids underperformed, while approximately one-third of cells exhibited elevated errors linked to noise or regime shifts, underscoring the necessity of rigorous evaluation design. Collectively, these findings establish clear deployment guidelines: CNN–LSTM and GRU are recommended where robustness and accuracy are paramount (cloud and edge analytics), while LightGBM and CatBoost offer optimal latency–efficiency trade-offs for embedded controllers. Beyond model choice, the study highlights data curation and leakage-averse validation as critical enablers for transferable and reliable SOH estimation. This benchmarking framework provides a robust foundation for future integration of ML models into real-world battery management systems.

Single crystals of the novel arsenate, Na₃Al₃(AsO₄)₄ have been isolated and their structure has been determined by X-ray diffraction experiment. Na₃Al₃(AsO₄)₄ crystallizes in the monoclinic space group C2/c with a = 19.837(1) Å; b = 6.448(3) Å; c = 10.437(6) Å, β = 91.986 (3)° and Z = 2. The structural model was confirmed by both bond valence sum (BVS), charge distribution (CHARDI) validation tools and density functional theory (DFT) method. The empirical activation energy for sodium migration channels within the crystal structure was estimated by the bond valence site energy landscape (BVSE) map method. With an energy barrier of 0.409 eV, the crystal structure features 3D networks of pathways suitable for Na⁺ ion migration.