The widespread use of conventional plastic in food packaging has raised serious environmental issues due to its persistence and poor biodegradability. With growing concerns over plastic pollution and its long-term ecological impact, researchers are increasingly turning to natural, renewable sources for sustainable alternatives. Agricultural waste, often discarded in large quantities, offers a valuable resource for producing biodegradable polymers. This review discusses the environmental burden caused by traditional plastics and explores how agricultural residues such as rice husks, corn cobs, and fruit peels can be converted into eco-friendly packaging materials. Various types of biopolymers sourced from agricultural waste, including cellulose, starch, plant and animal-based proteins, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), and polylactic acid (PLA), are examined for their properties, benefits, and limitations in food packaging applications. Each material presents unique characteristics in terms of biodegradability, mechanical strength, and barrier performance. While significant progress has been made, several challenges remain, including cost-effective production, material performance, and compliance with food safety regulations. Looking ahead, innovations in material processing, waste management integration, and biopolymer formulation could pave the way for widespread adoption. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of current developments and future directions in the use of agricultural waste for sustainable packaging solutions, comparing their biodegradability and performance to conventional plastics.

The extraction of cellulose from almond shell powders was carried out using three different particle sizes (125 µm, 250 µm, and 500 µm) of the powders. The powder samples were subjected to Soxhlet extraction using an ethanol and methanol volume ratio of 2:1 for 6 hours to remove impurities such as waxes, resins, and dust. The dewaxed product was further hydrolyzed with 10% sodium hydroxide to remove the hemicellulose. The delignification of the hydrolyzed powder extracts was achieved with 10% acidified sodium chlorite. The percentage yield of the pure cellulose extracts for the 125, 250, and 500 µm particle sizes were 25%, 52.2%, and 42.6%, respectively. Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy confirmed the removal of hemicellulose and lignin after the chemical treatment. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) images revealed a smooth textural surface of the micro-cellulose. X-ray diffraction (XRD) demonstrated high crystallinity of the cellulose, while thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated high thermal stability of the cellulose extract. This confirmed that cellulose was successfully extracted from almond shell powders of three different particle sizes which could serve as raw material for nanocellulose extraction.

Glass fibre (GF), nanoclay (NC) and hybrid composites compatibilised with maleic anhydride polypropylene (MAPP) were prepared by extrusion and injection moulding. The Fourier transform infra-red spectra revealed the characteristic absorption peaks of MAPP in the compatibilised GF and NC composites. A decrement in the peak intensity of X-ray diffraction patterns of NC composite was obtained as the MAPP content increased indicating a partial exfoliation of NC. The thermogravimetric analysis showed that the incorporation of MAPP into hybrid composites reduced the thermal stability of the material. The dynamic mechanical analysis showed an increase in the storage modulus in the hybrid composites with lower content of MAPP due to the enhancement in the interfacial adhesion between the GF, NC and PP matrix.

The effects of acid hydrolysis parameters (acid type, acid concentration, reaction time, and temperature) on the properties of nanocellulose (NC) extracted from almond shells were investigated. The highest percentage yield of NC obtained from each type of acid was 71.8% using 25% w/v sulfuric acid at 50°C for 60 min, followed by 71.1% with 50% w/v perchloric acid at 35°C for 15 min, and finally 67% with 50% w/v methane sulfonic acid at 25°C for 10 min. The hydrolysis treatment using sulfuric and perchloric acids greatly affect the NC particle size and length. The extracted NCs show different thermal degradation profiles due to the difference in the crystallinity index and types of acid used. Hydrolysis with strong acids (sulfuric and perchloric acids) produce NC with lower crystallinity due to the degradation of both amorphous and crystalline regions in the cellulose. Furthermore, BET analysis revealed the NCs from the hydrolysis using sulfuric acid possesses the highest surface area, desorption/adsorption pore diameter, desorption, and adsorption cumulative pore volume compared to other acids.

Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) was heat treated at 180°C using a vacuum oven for one hour, extruded and compounded with high-density polyethylene at 10%, 20% and 30% weight fraction. The composites then were injection moulded into dumb-bell shaped specimens. The effect of composition and heat treatment on the thermal properties of composites were investigated using Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). The tensile and flexural properties were also tested using an Instron Universal Testing Machine. TGA shows an increase in the degradation peak temperature of the heat-treated composites. DSC revealed an increasing trend in the degree of crystallinity (X_c) of the matrix as the heat-treated empty fruit bunch was used as a filler. An increment in the tensile modulus and tensile strain were observed for the treated fibre composites. In addition, the tensile strength value was increased for treated fibre composites with lower fibre loading.