Access to safe drinking water remains a fundamental issue in rural areas of Ethiopia. This study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of drinking water at protected sources in the Farta district, South Gondar Zone, Ethiopia. The study covered 16 rural Kebeles and was conducted on 75 protected dug wells with hand pumps (HDWs) and 17 protected springs (PSs). Data were collected during the wet and dry season, and field measurement were conducted on water samples pH, turbidity, electrical conductivity, and temperature, while laboratory analysis focused on E. coli prevalence. Additionally, sanitary risk assessment was also performed. The result showed that, the pH values ranged from 5.4 to 8.1, turbidity levels varied between 0 to 100 nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU), electric conductivity ranged from 62 to 584 µS/cm, and temperature ranged from 12.1 to 27 °C. Among all the samples, 39.1% had a pH below the minimum standard value of 6.5, close to 50.5% did not meet the turbidity requirement (5NTU), and all samples were safe against electric conductivity levels. The E. coli contamination was widespread, and only a small percentage of water sources, such as 21.7% HDWs, 6.7% PSs during dry season, and 13% HDWs during wet season were negative to E. coli detection. A significant proportion of water sources, such as 18% HDWs and 13% PSs during dry season, as well as 44.9% HDWs and 46.7% PSs during wet season, fell into the high microbial health risk category. Sanitary inspections revealed that only 16.7% of water sources were classified as low sanitary risk. This study revealed that majority of water sources were unfit to drinking and may endanger the public health. To ensure safe water availability frequent cleaning and disinfection of water sources, implementation of household water treatment, and improvement of WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) infrastructure is needed.

Access to safe drinking water is a fundamental human need for health and well-being implemented globally by the United Nations under Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6. Storing drinking water is common in rural areas of Ethiopia due to off-premises water sources and intermittent piped water supply. However, this practice can lead to further contamination during collection, transport, and storage, posing a risk to public health. The objective of this study was to identify the determinant factors of drinking water quality at the point of use in the rural setting of northwestern Ethiopia, South Gondar zone. A questionnaire survey was conducted, and water samples from 720 households were collected during the wet and dry seasons. The determinant factors were identified using the multivariable logistic regression model. About 39.2% of the surveyed households had basic water supply services, 41.9% were using unimproved sources, and 8.3% were using surface water. Only 9.4% were using basic sanitation services, and 57.2% were practicing open defecation. Safe water storage was practiced by 84.3% of households, while only 2% engaged in household water treatment. About 14% of dry and 8% of wet season samples from the storage were free from fecal coliform bacteria. Furthermore, 52.9% of dry and 62.2% of wet season samples fell under the high microbial health risk category. The season of the year, the water source type, storage washing methods, and the socioeconomic status of the household were identified as key predictors of household drinking water fecal contamination using the multivariable logistic regression model. It was observed that the drinking water in households had a high load of fecal contamination, posing health risks to consumers. To tackle these problems, our study recommends that stakeholders should enhance access to improved water sources, implement source-level water treatment, increase access to improved sanitation facilities, advocate for safe household water management practices, and endorse household water treatment methods.

School based WASH services are critical for child health, educational performance, and equitable learning environments, yet context-specific evidence from rapidly urbanizing Ethiopian cities remains scarce. This study investigated WASH services and drinking water quality across schools in Bahir Dar City. A cross-sectional survey was conducted involving 117 randomly selected schools to assess WASH services alongside onsite physicochemical testing and membrane filtration for E. coli detection. Additionally, multivariable logistic regression was used to identify predictors of service coverage. The results indicate that 79.5% of schools met the criteria for basic water service, 97.4% for basic sanitation, and 41.9% for basic hygiene; however, only 27.4% achieved all three services simultaneously. Despite high reliance on piped water supply (91.5%), service continuity was limited (47.9%), and point-of-use water treatment was uncommon (26.5%). Furthermore, E. coli was detected in 32.3% of samples, with high-risk contamination observed in two kindergarten schools. Free chlorine residual met WHO guideline values in only 10 school water samples, indicating that chlorination is not routinely practiced. Additionally, despite near-universal basic sanitation coverage, insufficient student-to-toilet ratio (61.5%) and inadequate cleanliness remain major challenges. Multivariable regression analysis showed that kindergarten schools were more likely to have basic WASH services, and schools exposed to environmental impact were less likely to have basic hygiene service. Ultimately, this study identifies critical gaps in integrated WASH services, water quality monitoring, and service reliability, underscoring the need for targeted interventions to protect the well-being of students in schools.

Surface water is one of the common drinking water sources used by many people in low- and middle-income countries. In Ethiopia, individuals living around Lake Tana, particularly those on the islands, consume water directly from the lake despite the risk of contamination. This study characterizes the water quality of the lake to assess its suitability for drinking for the island communities. Samples from the lake, taken near the islands, were analyzed for fecal coliform and physicochemical parameters, including pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, turbidity, nitrate, ammonia, phosphate, total alkalinity, total hardness, sulfate, and fluoride during both wet and dry seasons. The wet season water quality analysis was conducted in August 2024, while the dry season analysis took place in January 2025. The results indicated that the lake is highly contaminated with fecal coliform and affected by turbidity, with the degree of contamination worsening in the wet season. The maximum fecal coliform count in the wet season was greater than 2000 CFU/100 mL. None of the samples met the fecal coliform drinking water quality standard in the wet season; the majorities were classified under the high-risk category. In the dry season, the maximum fecal coliform count was 420 CFU/100 mL, with only 23.5% of samples categorized as conforming. The maximum turbidity was 92.7 NTU in the wet season and 30.7 NTU in the dry season, with all samples in the wet season and 94.2% in the dry season remaining unacceptable for drinking. These results indicate insufficient access to clean water, undermining the achievement of SDG 6, and they also compromise the health and wellbeing of people, undermining the achievement of SDG 3. Other physicochemical parameters, however, were within guideline limits. The findings highlight the urgent need for implementing household level or community scale treatment facilities to ensure safe drinking water and enhance the public health.

Inadequate access to water service and contaminated drinking water in institutions can pose a critical challenge for public health and education services. This study assesses the water supply service levels and drinking water quality in the healthcare facilities (HCFs) and schools of selected rural areas of the Amhara Region, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional survey was conducted involving 150 schools and 60 HCFs to assess their drinking water service delivery. Additionally, water samples were collected for fecal coliform analysis, and physicochemical parameters were measured on-site. Only 50% of schools and 23.3% of HCFs had access to basic water supply services, falling short of SDG 6.1 target. The pH level in 45% and 37.2% of the water samples from HCFs and schools didn’t comply with WHO standards, respectively. Turbidity exceeded acceptable limits of 5NTU in 45% and 50% of water samples from HCFs and schools, respectively. Fecal coliform was detected in 76.9% of samples in HCFs and 78.2% of schools, exposing communities to a considerable health risk. The study revealed that fecal coliform level was significantly varied among the water points (p < 0.01), with piped water showing better quality and unprotected springs having the poorest quality. The study highlights critical gaps in water services delivery at the institutions, hindering the effort made to achieve SDGs. To ensure access to safe water in schools and HCFs, expanding piped and borehole water sources, implementing robust water quality monitoring, and introducing appropriate water treatment are recommended.