The coexistence of traditional knowledge and environmental preservation presents a critical nexus in advancing sustainable development efforts, particularly concerning the conservation of indigenous medicinal plants. These plants play a dual role: they are essential components of traditional healing practices and are integral to economic stability, food security, and nutrition in communities worldwide. However, the rapid depletion of biodiversity and ecosystem degradation threaten the availability and sustainability of these vital resources. Despite their cultural and economic importance, there is a noticeable gap in the research addressing the conservation and sustainable use of indigenous medicinal plants, particularly focusing on the preservation of traditional knowledge systems. The existing literature often lacks comprehensive studies that document traditional knowledge practices related to medicinal plant conservation. Additionally, there is limited understanding of how the mismanagement of medicinal plant resources impacts the livelihoods of rural smallholder farmers who heavily rely on these plants for economic gains and food security. Hence, this study sought to explore and investigate the harmonious strategies that integrate traditional knowledge systems with modern conservation practices to safeguard indigenous medicinal plants on economic well-being in the Amatole District Municipality of the Eastern Cape. The study was conducted in 2023, and a structured questionnaire was used to capture the realities and experiences of prominent stakeholders (smallholder medicinal plant farmers). A multi-stratified sampling technique was used to draw up an appropriate sample of 150 smallholder farmers. Descriptive statistics and propensity-score matching were used for analysis. The study results indicated that the women farmers who are 44 years of average age and have 10 years of average schooling duration participate more in the production of indigenous medicinal plants. The average farm size per household is 1 ha, and it is reliant on an average of five members per household. The participation of women with indigenous medicinal plants underscores the significant role of women in traditional knowledge systems and sustainable agricultural practices, contributing to household income and community resilience. Additionally, the findings indicated that smallholder farmers are only aware of keeping indigenous medicinal plants by producing them in protected areas and on-farm conservation; other measures appear challenging to them. The study results reveal that knowledge of seed propagation, lack of knowledge of the implications of endangerment, the removal of forests with the motive of building houses, and, lastly, financial support were the constraints faced by smallholder farmers. Empirical results on the conservation and sustainable use of indigenous medicinal plants revealed that farmers are generating income to sustain the household as well as enhancing food and nutrition security. Based on the study results, it is recommended that government entities and policymakers are urged to prioritize supporting traditional knowledge, implement on-farm conservation, and foster sustainable agricultural practices to ensure biodiversity conservation, cultural preservation, and sustainable livelihoods. Enhancing targeted support for smallholder farmers, including access to land, agricultural services, and financial aid, alongside market development, ensures equitable benefits and sustainable livelihoods. Educational campaigns should raise awareness about indigenous medicinal plants’ ecological and economic importance, integrating traditional knowledge into formal education.

Food insecurity remains a pressing issue globally, exacerbated in regions like sub-Saharan Africa, where rural communities face significant challenges in accessing nutritious food. The Eastern Cape Province of South Africa is particularly vulnerable, with high levels of poverty and limited infrastructure contributing to food insecurity among its rural households. In response to these challenges, family food gardens have emerged as a promising strategy to enhance local food production, improve dietary diversity, and foster economic resilience within these communities. Despite the potential benefits of family food gardens, empirical evidence of their effectiveness in mitigating food insecurity at the household level in the Eastern Cape Province is scarce and remains limited. Understanding the factors that influence the success of these gardens, including socio-economic, environmental, and institutional determinants, is crucial for optimizing their impact and scalability. Hence, this study sought to comprehensively explore and investigate the role of family food gardens in improving food security within rural households in the Eastern Cape Province. It seeks to identify the determinants that contribute to the success of these gardens and their potential to alleviate food insecurity. The study made use of a descriptive research design, and the study utilized purposive sampling to gather data from 130 rural households via structured questionnaires. Data analyses incorporated in the study included the Household Dietary Diversity Score and logit regression model to explore the impacts and determinants of family food gardens on food security. The study findings underscore the significant positive contributions of family food gardens to rural communities. They serve as vital sources of fresh crops and vegetables, supplementing household nutrition and providing temporary employment. Constraints identified in the study include financial limitations, theft, water scarcity, inadequate fencing, and limited market access. The study insights highlight the fact that socio-economic and institutional factors such as age, gender, household income, and access to credit are critical influencers of family food garden success. These empirical results offer practical implications for policymakers, governmental agencies, and local communities seeking to promote sustainable agricultural practices and alleviate food insecurity. The research highlights how essential family food gardens are for improving food security among rural families in the Eastern Cape Province. The findings suggest that a joint effort is needed from the government, policymakers, NGOs, and local communities to overcome challenges and make the most of social and economic resources. By working together, these groups can enhance the role of family food gardens, making them a more effective solution for local food production and a stronger defence against food insecurity in the region.

The Eastern Cape Province of South Africa is largely rural, with agriculture as the main livelihood for many households. However, the province has a semi-arid climate and reliance on rain-fed agriculture, which makes the region highly vulnerable to climate-related risks, particularly droughts. Smallholder farmers, who play a crucial role in food production and local economies, face significant challenges due to limited access to resources like irrigation, modern technology, and financial support, exacerbating their vulnerability to climate variability. These droughts cause severe losses in agricultural productivity, threatening food security, increasing poverty, and driving rural migration. Despite the potential benefits of adaptation strategies, many farmers lack the tools and knowledge to effectively cope with the increasing frequency and severity of droughts. This study examines how smallholder farmers in South Africa’s Eastern Cape Province perceive, experience, and cope with drought risk and its food and nutrition security implications. Using structured questionnaires, the authors collected data from 160 smallholder farmers and employed statistical analysis techniques, including a multinomial logit model. The study found that smallholder farmers understand drought risk but continue to face high vulnerability to adverse effects such as water scarcity, crop failure, increased disease incidence, and rising temperatures. Socioeconomic and institutional factors significantly influenced the adaptation strategies chosen by smallholder farmers. This study suggests that a combination of localized and modern adaptation approaches, supported by various institutional, policy, and technological interventions, is essential to enhance the resilience of these farmers. Specifically, localized strategies such as using traditional water management systems and crop diversification were effective in addressing region-specific climate challenges. At the same time, modern approaches like climate-resilient crop varieties and early-warning systems provided broader, more scalable solutions. Institutional support measures, such as access to climate information and extension services, policy interventions promoting sustainable practices, and technological advancements in irrigation and seed technologies, were key factors in improving adaptive capacity and reducing vulnerability. There is an urgent need to provide comprehensive support and empower farmers to adapt effectively, protect their livelihoods, and contribute to broader food security and poverty reduction efforts. This study highlights the importance of understanding and addressing the perceptions and experiences of smallholder farmers facing drought risk to ensure sustainable food production, income generation, and poverty alleviation.

Livestock farming is essential for achieving sustainable livelihoods in Africa, especially among smallholder farmers. However, these farmers face challenges like limited resources, market access, and support services. Moreover, there is insufficient clarity pertaining to the factors influencing smallholder farmers' management decisions to mitigate risks. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the factors that have an impact on the livestock management practices smallholder farmers use in the Eastern Cape. This study employed a descriptive approach following a cross-sectional design using a multi-stratified sampling procedure to randomly select 160 smallholder livestock farmers to participate in this study. Findings reveal that livestock farming in the province is becoming evenly balanced, with more women participating, though challenges still prevail. Currently, middle-aged farmers lead production, but growing youth involvement offers hope for the future. Household factors like marital status, education, and employment influence the farmer's resilience. Livestock play vital roles in smallholder households, with cattle often kept as long-term assets, providing security and savings. Sheep and goats help balance income and nutrition, while pigs and chickens offer quick sales and food for families. However, environmental risks and management challenges remain. Most farmers rely on free-range grazing due to limited access to proper feeds, restricting livestock growth. Extension services and vaccination programs are limited, thus reducing animal health support. Farmers face risks from pests and diseases, market fluctuations, and a lack of credit. More frequent extension visits and targeted policies can assist farmers in maintaining healthy livestock and reducing risks, building a sustainable future for smallholder farmers. The study concludes that strengthening household resilience through education, gender inclusivity and improved access to credit, markets, and extension services is essential. These findings provide critical policy insights for promoting sustainable livestock systems and enhancing smallholder livelihoods.

Climate-smart agricultural practices (CSAPs) are promoted as pathways for improving productivity and resilience among smallholder farmers; however, empirical evidence on their welfare effects remains limited in South Africa. This study examines the impact of CSAP adoption on household welfare among smallholder maize farmers in KwaZulu-Natal Province. A cross-sectional survey of 300 households was conducted using a multistage sampling approach. Welfare outcomes was measured using multidimensional indicators including the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS), the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), the Coping Strategy Index (CSI), and the Foster–Greer–Thorbecke (FGT) poverty index. An Endogenous Switching Regression (ESR) model was employed to correct for selection bias and to generate counterfactuals that estimate what adopters’ welfare would have been in the absence of CSAP uptake. Results show that access to extension, group membership, and training significantly increased the likelihood of CSAP adoption. ESR outcomes indicate that adopters had higher dietary diversity, lower food insecurity, and reduced reliance on severe coping strategies. Counterfactual analysis reveals that adopters would have experienced significantly poorer welfare outcomes had they not adopted CSAPs. The findings demonstrate that CSAP adoption yields measurable welfare benefits and improves household resilience. The study recommends targeted investments in extension support, farmer organizations, and institutional arrangements to accelerate the adoption of CSAP and enhance household welfare.

The agricultural sector in the world and Sub-Saharan Africa faces the pressing challenge of meeting the growing food demand driven by the exponential population growth. With smallholder poultry farming playing a critical role in food and nutritional security, this systematic review synthesizes literature from the past two decades to assess the adoption of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) among smallholder poultry farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The review focuses on the benefits and barriers impacting this adoption. Following the PRISMA methodology, 19 peer-reviewed studies were analyzed to explore how ICT facilitates market participation, enhances information exchange, and improves producer livelihoods. The included studies in this review were sourced from four major academic databases: Science Direct, Web of Science, Wiley online library, and EBSCOhost. The findings reveal that ICT adoption significantly reduces information asymmetry, enables farmers to access market and production knowledge, and thus improves their profitability and inclusion in informal and formal market platforms. The review underscores the potential of targeted policy interventions and digital platforms to empower smallholder poultry farmers, enhance their commercialization, and contribute towards agricultural sustainability in the region. This study highlights the critical need for increased ICT accessibility, capacity building, and infrastructural improvements to support the digital transformation of smallholder poultry farming in Sub-Saharan Africa.