Multiple factors have been proposed to explain the disappearance of Neandertals between ca. 50 and 40 kyr BP. Central to these discussions has been the identification of new techno-cultural complexes that overlap with the period of Neandertal demise in Europe. One such complex is the Châtelperronian, which extends from the Paris Basin to the Northern Iberian Peninsula between 43,760–39,220 BP. In this study we present the first open-air Châtelperronian site in the Northern Iberian Peninsula, Aranbaltza II. The technological features of its stone tool assemblage show no links with previous Middle Paleolithic technology in the region, and chronological modeling reveals a gap between the latest Middle Paleolithic and the Châtelperronian in this area. We interpret this as evidence of local Neandertal extinction and replacement by other Neandertal groups coming from southern France, illustrating how local extinction episodes could have played a role in the process of disappearance of Neandertals.

The study of lithic technology can provide information on human cultural evolution. This article aims to analyse visual behaviour associated with the exploration of ancient stone artefacts and how this relates to perceptual mechanisms in humans. In Experiment 1, we used eye tracking to record patterns of eye fixations while participants viewed images of stone tools, including examples of worked pebbles and handaxes. The results showed that the focus of gaze was directed more towards the upper regions of worked pebbles and on the basal areas for handaxes. Knapped surfaces also attracted more fixation than natural cortex for both tool types. Fixation distribution was different to that predicted by models that calculate visual salience. Experiment 2 was an online study using a mouse-click attention tracking technique and included images of unworked pebbles and ‘mixed’ images combining the handaxe's outline with the pebble's unworked texture. The pattern of clicks corresponded to that revealed using eye tracking and there were differences between tools and other images. Overall, the findings suggest that visual exploration is directed towards functional aspects of tools. Studies of visual attention and exploration can supply useful information to inform understanding of human cognitive evolution and tool use.

The role of experience during the exploration of lithic artefacts can be been investigated through multiple approaches. Knowledge can influence visual perception of the environment, whilst action “affordances” can be processed at the first sight of an object. In this study, we used eye tracking to analyse whether and to what extent archaeological knowledge can influence visuospatial attention whilst interacting with stone tools. Archaeologists were found to pay more visual attention to the middle region and the knapped surface. Differences between the visual exploration of choppers and handaxes were also found. Although the general pattern of distribution of the visual attention was similar to naïve subjects, participants with archaeological experience paid more attention to functionally relevant regions. Individuals with archaeological experience directed more attention to the upper region and the knapped surface of the tools, whilst naïve participants spent more time viewing the middle region. We conclude that although both groups could direct their attention to action relevant features in stone tools, functional affordances had a greater effect in subjects with previous experience. Affordances related to manipulation triggered lower attention and showed no differences between participants.

Humans are specialized in eye-hand coordination through a complex visuospatial system. When a tool is observed, the motor areas of the brain are activated and, when grasped, it is sensed as a part of the body. One approach to understanding the underlying mechanisms behind this process regards the analysis of visual attention. Vision influences the spatial interaction with tools and plays a crucial role in the perception of an object’s affordances. In this study, we employ eye-tracking technology to investigate whether Lower Palaeolithic stone tool morphology influences visual attention during visual exploration and manipulation. Our results suggest that the handaxe morphology has a moderate influence on the visual scanning of the tool. In contrast, visual exploration of the chopper is only influenced by the weight of the tool. The different visual behaviours exerted by these two technologies suggest divergences in the visuospatial process underlying the interaction with these tools.

Art visual processing is a complex cognitive process that involves perception, attention and decision-making. The initial stage of this process is characterized by visual exploration through rapid eye movements which can provide insights into attentional patterns and information processing and can be examined using eye-tracking technology. In this study, we employ eye-tracking to investigate visual perception during the observation of Palaeolithic rock art mostly from the Cantabrian seaboard, aiming to investigate the behavioural mechanisms underlying figure recognition and attentional distribution. This study comprises two experiments—one including entire panels and the other focusing exclusively on single figures—both yielding similar results. Our findings indicate that attention was predominantly directed towards the depicted figures, particularly their heads, rather than other elements within the visual field. Additionally, incomplete figures were perceived as complete, suggesting that figure recognition were influenced by Gestalt principles, internal cognitive models, and other top-down systems.