The Bell Textron APT70 is a UAV concept developed for last mile delivery and other usual applications. It performs vertical takeoff and transition into aircraft mode for forward flight. It includes four rotor each with four rotating blades. A test campaign has been performed to study the effects of ice accretion on rotor performance through a parametric study of different parameters, namely MVD, LWC, rotor speed, and pitch angle. This paper presents the last experimentations of this campaign for the drone rotor operating in forward flight under simulated icing conditions in a refrigerated, closed-loop wind tunnel. Results demonstrated that the different parameters studied greatly impacted the collection efficiency of the blades and thus, the resulting ice accretion. Smaller droplets were more easily influenced by the streamlines around the rotating blades, resulting in less droplets impacting the surface and thus slower ice accumulations. Higher rotation speeds and pitch angles generated more energetic streamlines, which again transported more droplets around the airfoils instead of them impacting on the surface, which also led to slower accumulation. Slower ice accumulation resulted in slower thrust losses, since the loss in performances can be directly linked to the amount of ice accreted. This research has not only allowed the obtainment of very insightful results on the effect of each test parameter on the ice accumulation, but it has also conducted the development of a unique test bench for UAV propellers. The new circular test sections along with the new instrumentation installed in and around the tunnel will allow the laboratory to be able to generate icing on various type of UAV in forward flight under representative atmospheric conditions.

Atmospheric icing during flight poses a significant risk to smaller unmanned aerial vehicles, drones, and electric vertical take-off and landing crafts. In-flight icing negatively affects their aerodynamics and increases weight, thus restricting their operational envelopes and reducing seasonal reliability. Here a smart ice detection and removal system utilizing multi-frequency microwave split-ring-resonator sensors for location-specific impact ice sensing is introduced. The sensor is integrated onto an airfoil with a multi-zone electrothermal de-icing system and a deicing coating for a zone-based ice protection system. Experimental testing is conducted within a refrigerated icing wind tunnel under low-Reynolds number conditions (Re ∼ 105 ) at airspeeds (20 and 40 m/s) relevant to urban air mobility. The sensor's response to distinct accretion characteristics at -5 °C, -10 °C and -20 °C, and at varying liquid water contents (0.3, 0.5, and 0.8 g/m3 ), is investigated. The sensor exhibits a high sensitivity of 179 MHz/mm and data post-processing enables precise monitoring of icing rates under various conditions and with different types of ice accretions for prediction of ice thickness. This proof-of-concept system shows significant potential for use in green energy and aviation sectors, offering prompt and efficient ice protection to maintain the safety and effectiveness of aerospace vehicles.