The sources and structures of dyes used to colour Western historical textiles are described in this tutorial review. Most blue and purple colours were derived from indigo—obtained either from woad or from the indigo plant—though some other sources (e.g. shellfish and lichens) were used. Reds were often anthraquinone derivatives obtained from plants or insects. Yellows were almost always flavonoid derivatives obtained from a variety of plant species. Most other colours were produced by over-dyeing—e.g. greens were obtained by over-dyeing a blue with a yellow dye. Direct analysis of dyes isolated from artefacts allows comparison with the historical record.

Lead white is a man-made white pigment commonly used in works of art. In this study, the possibility of radiocarbon dating lead white pigments alone and in oil paints was explored using well-dated lead white pigments and paints. Resulting¹⁴C ages on lead white pigments produced following the traditional stack process, where carbonate groups results from the incorporation of CO₂originating from fermentation, matched the production years, while radiocarbon dating of lead white made using other industrial processes indicate that¹⁴C depleted CO₂was used in their production. The method was applied to two case studies, where lead carbonate samples were dated in two oil paintings, one Baroque and one from the 20th century. We hereby show that the lead white pigment can be dated by¹⁴C and used as proxy for the time of creation of an artwork. Additionally, a two-step method was developed to allow¹⁴C analysis of both the lead white pigment and oil binder from the same sample. A single lead white paint sample can yield two distinct radiocarbon ages, one from the carbonate and one from the natural organic binder. This study thus proposes new strategies for¹⁴C dating of artworks.