According to the DSM-5, neurodevelopmental disorders represent a group of heterogeneous conditions, with onset during the developmental period, characterized by an alteration of communication and social skills, learning, adaptive behavior, executive functions, and psychomotor skills. These deficits determine an impairment of personal, social, scholastic, or occupational functioning. Neurodevelopmental disorders are characterized by an increased incidence and a multifactorial etiology, including genetic and environmental components. Data largely explain the role of genetic and environmental factors, also through epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation and miRNA. Despite genetic factors, nutritional factors also play a significant role in the pathophysiology of these disorders, both in the prenatal and postnatal period, underscoring that the control of modifiable factors could decrease the incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders. The preventive role of nutrition is widely studied as regards many chronic diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension, and cancer, but actually we also know the effects of nutrition on embryonic brain development and the influence of prenatal and preconceptional nutrition in predisposition to various pathologies. These factors are not limited only to a correct caloric intake and a good BMI, but rather to an adequate and balanced intake of macro and micronutrients, the type of diet, and other elements such as exposure to heavy metals. This review represents an analysis of the literature as regards the physiopathological mechanisms by which food influences our state of health, especially in the age of development (from birth to adolescence), through prenatal and preconceptional changes, underlying how controlling these nutritional factors should improve mothers’ nutritional state to significantly reduce the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring. We searched key words such as “maternal nutrition and neurodevelopmental disorders” on Pubmed and Google Scholar, selecting the main reviews and excluding individual cases. Therefore, nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics teach us the importance of personalized nutrition for good health. So future perspectives may include well-established reference values in order to determine the correct nutritional intake of mothers through food and integration.

Background. The orofacial pain syndromes (OFPs) are a heterogeneous group of syndromes characterized by painful attacks involving the orofacial structures. They may be summarily subdivided into two great categories: (1) orofacial pain mainly attributed to dental disorders such as dentoalveolar and myofascial orofacial pain or temporomandibular joint (TM) pain; (2) orofacial pain mainly attributed to non-dental pain as neuralgias, facial localization of primary headaches or idiopathic orofacial pain. The second group is uncommon, often described by single case reports, can often show overlapping symptoms with the first group, and represents a clinical challenge, carrying the risk of undervaluation and possibly invasive odontoiatric treatment. We aimed to describe a clinical pediatric series of non-dental orofacial pain and better to underline some topographic and clinical features associated with them. We retrospectively collected the data of children admitted to our headache centers (Bari, Palermo, Torino) from 2017 to 2021. Our inclusion criterion was the presence of non-dental orofacial pain following the topographic criteria of 3° International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD-3), and exclusion criteria included the pain syndromes attributed to the dental disorders and pain syndromes due to the secondary etiologies Results. Our sample comprised 43 subjects (23/20 M/F, in the range of ages 5–17). We classified them int: 23 primary headaches involving the facial territory during attacks, 2 facial trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, 1 facial primary stabbing headache, 1 facial linear headache, 6 trochlear migraines, 1 orbital migraine 3 red ear syndrome and 6 atypical facial pain. All patients described debilitating pain for intensity (moderate/severe), 31 children had episodic attacks, and 12 had continuous pain. Almost all received drugs for acute treatment (less than 50% were satisfied), and some received non-pharmacological treatment associated with drug therapy Conclusion. Although rare OFP can occur in pediatric age, it can be debilitating if unrecognized and untreated, affecting the psychophysical well-being of young patients. We highlight the specific characteristics of the disorder for a more correct and earlier identification during the diagnostic process, already difficult in pediatric age, and to define the approach and possible treatment to prevent negative outcomes in adulthood.

Headache represents one of the most prevalent and disabling conditions in the pediatric population, with significant repercussions on mental and psychological well-being, as well as on academic achievement and social functioning, ultimately leading to a marked reduction in quality of life. Currently, the diagnosis of headache is based on the clinical criteria of the third edition of the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD-3). However, the characteristics of headache may differ between adults and children, as well as the ability of children to provide a complete description of the pain and associated symptoms. The immature narrative skills of children can represent a limitation in defining the clinical phenotype of headache, making the diagnosis more complex. This is even more challenging when extracting information about the characteristics of the headache in children whose verbal expression is poorly developed or completely absent. Given these limitations, clinical psychology has long used drawing as an effective diagnostic instrument to bypass verbal communication barriers. This tool provides unique access to children’s psychological and emotional states, as a direct window into their inner world and as an expressive medium that often generates more detailed, accurate, and clinically actionable information, compared to verbal reports alone. For these reasons, drawing has been recognized as a valuable diagnostic tool for decades, with multiple studies demonstrating specificity and accuracy rates comparable to standard clinical assessments. Particularly for young children, drawings may give access to fundamental information that might otherwise remain inaccessible, thereby allowing both accurate diagnosis and individualized treatment planning. Multiple studies have highlighted and confirmed the graphic differences between representations of various types of headaches and the undeniable utility of an “artistic diagnosis” alongside the clinical one. Furthermore, the literature suggests and encourages the use of drawing in clinical practice, both in the diagnostic process and during subsequent follow-up, as an effective, enjoyable, easy-to-use, and low-cost resource. Accordingly, we propose a narrative review accompanied by a curated collection of drawings that may help identify and categorize specific correlations between graphic representations and clinical phenotypes, such as pain location, quality, intensity, association with nausea and vomiting, photophobia and phonophobia, and types of migraine aura. Our goal is to create a visual reference that can aid clinicians in the accurate interpretation of children’s drawings. Additionally, we aim to promote the integration of this method into routine clinical practice to improve diagnostic precision and support a more child-centered model of care. We also hope to propose new iconographic models to further enrich the diagnostic framework.

Headache is one of the most common and debilitating conditions in pediatric age, compromising mental and psycho-logical health, as well as academic and social performance in children, significantly reducing the quality of life. Currently, the diagnosis of headache is based on the clinical criteria of the third edition of the International Classifica-tion of Headache Disorders (ICHD-3). However, the characteristics of headache may differ between adults and children, as well as the ability of children to provide a complete description of the pain and associated symptoms. The immature narrative skills of children can represent a limitation in defining the clinical phenotype of headache, making the diagnosis more complex. This is even more challenging when extracting information about the characteris-tics of the headache in children whose verbal expression is poorly developed or completely absent. Given these limitations, clinical psychology has long used drawing, as an effective diagnostic instrument to bypass verbal communication barriers. This tool provides unique access to children's psychological and emotional states, as a direct window into their inner world and as an expressive medium that often generate more detailed, accurate, and clinically actionable information, compared to verbal reports alone For these reasons, drawing has been recognized as a valuable diagnostic toolfor decades,with multiple studies demon-strating specificity and accuracy rates comparable to standard clinical assessments. Particularly for young childfren, drawings may give access to fundamental information that might otherwise remain inaccessible, , thereby allowing both accurate diagnosis and individualized treatment planning. Multiple studies have highlighted and confirmed the graphic differences between representations of various types of headaches and the undeniable utility of an "artistic diagnosis" alongside the clinical one. Furthermore, the literature suggests and encourages the use of drawing in clinical practice, both in the diagnostic pro-cess and during subsequent follow-up, as an effective, enjoyable, easy-to-use, and low-cost resource. Therefore, we propose a narrative review, accompanied by a collection of drawings, which may serve to identify and catalog the specific correlations between graphic representations and the characteristics of the clinical phenotype, such as pain location, quality, intensity, association with nausea and vomiting, photophobia and phonophobia, and types of migraine aura. The goal is to create a collection that can guide clinicians in the correct interpretation of the drawings. In this review, we also aim to promote the integration of this approach into clinical practice to enhance diagnostic accu-racy and foster a more child-centered model of care.

Headache is a very common disorder in children and adolescents. While migraine and tension headaches are well-known and diagnosed by pediatricians, a group of primary headaches in children, rare in frequency, are poorly understood and likely underestimated by physicians, resulting in delayed diagnosis and treatment. This review aims to provide an updated overview of these clinical forms, considering new evidence. We will present the main clinical, therapeutic, and pathophysiological aspects and possible future hypotheses, with specific reference to pediatric cases of the following clinical forms: cough headache, thunderclap headache, cold headache, primary stabbing headache, nummular headache, hypnic headache, red ear syndrome, and non-odontogenic orofacial pain. These clinical forms currently pose a major diagnostic challenge for pediatricians and represent a source of serious disability for children and adolescents.

Intellectual disability (ID) is frequently accompanied by a range of neuropsychiatric and neurological comorbidities, including anxiety, depression, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), sleep disturbances, and epilepsy. Conventional pharmacological treatments often provide partial relief and may be associated with adverse effects, prompting interest in adjunctive strategies such as phytotherapy. This review examines the current evidence on selected plant-derived compounds—particularly Crocus sativus (saffron), Bacopa monnieri, Curcuma longa (curcumin), and other botanicals—in the management of disorders associated with ID. Mechanistic pathways, clinical evidence, and safety considerations are critically discussed. Although some phytotherapeutic interventions have shown preliminary evidence of potential benefit and may modulate pathways involving neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and neurotransmitter function, direct clinical evidence in individuals with ID remains limited. Further well-designed randomized controlled trials, particularly in ID-specific populations, are needed to establish efficacy, safety, optimal dosing, and clinical applicability.