Students often struggle with interpreting traditional textbook images and translating them to anatomical structures. This study aimed to compare the impact of 3D scans versus 2D images on students’ learning outcomes when learning anatomical structures on skulls from horses and pigs. Furthermore, the correlation between spatial ability and learning outcomes using 3D scans or 2D images was examined. Second-year veterinary medicine students either used 3D scans or 2D images, annotated with arrows or numbers as learning material. Students’ anatomical knowledge was tested before and after the learning session, and spatial ability was assessed using the mental rotation test. All groups improved significantly in the post-test. However, the differences between groups were not significant, suggesting that 3D scans do not necessarily lead to higher learning outcomes. The analysis of the correlation between spatial ability and learning outcomes did not prove that students with weaker spatial ability benefit from 3D scans. Students preferred 3D scans over 2D images despite similar outcomes, suggesting they are valuable for learning. However, results show that the introduction of novel learning materials likely amplified the impact of reduced learning time on the 3D group, as these materials necessitated additional time for effective comprehension and integration.

Limited cadaver availability and health risks from formaldehyde-treated cadavers have increased the need for alternative learning materials in veterinary anatomy education. Two studies were conducted to investigate whether low-fidelity 3D-printed models provide comparable learning outcomes to real specimens. In study 1, veterinary students were assigned to two groups to study the equine distal limb on a real specimen (n = 67) or a 3D model (n = 68). In study 2, students were divided into four groups to study the canine forelimb on a real specimen (n = 44), a 3D model (n = 45), a 3D model followed by a real specimen (n = 47), or the reverse combination (n = 47). Learning outcomes were measured through a knowledge assessment. Afterwards, learning materials were evaluated by students. Both studies showed significantly higher learning outcomes in the groups learning with real specimens compared to other test groups. While students preferred to start learning with 3D models before switching to real specimens, this method had the lowest learning outcomes. However, students emphasized the value of 3D models for independent learning outside the dissection hall and desired further 3D models of other anatomical specimens. Findings indicated that low-fidelity 3D-printed models cannot replace real specimens but are a useful complementary tool in veterinary anatomy education.