In view of the uncertainty of model parameters, the influence of external disturbances and sensor noise on the flight of coaxial rotor aircraft during autonomous flight, a robust backstepping sliding mode control algorithm for the position and attitude feedback control system is studied to solve the trajectory tracking problem of an aircraft in the case of unknown external interference. In this study, a non-linear dynamic model based on a disturbed coaxial rotor aircraft was established for an unknown flight. Then, a non-linear robust backstepping sliding mode controller was designed, which was divided into two sub-controllers: the attitude controller and the position controller of the coaxial rotor aircraft. In the controller, virtual control was introduced to construct the Lyapunov function to ensure the stability of each subsystem. The effectiveness of the proposed controller was verified through numerical simulation. Finally, the effectiveness of the backstepping sliding mode control algorithm was verified by flight experiments.

To address the challenges of dynamic obstacles, limited perception, and multi-UAV coordination constraints in complex urban environments, a hierarchical control framework based on a virtual leader-follower architecture is proposed, covering global planning, local obstacle avoidance, and formation coordination. In the global planning layer, a dynamic adaptive strategy rapidly exploring random tree star (DASRRT*) algorithm is proposed. To address the low sampling efficiency and limited path extension in dense environments that affect traditional RRT*, a hybrid guided sampling strategy, inefficient node optimization strategy, and perception-based adaptive step size strategy are designed. Additionally, a multi-objective cost function is introduced to provide smoother trajectories that better comply with dynamic constraints for trajectory tracking. In the local obstacle-avoidance layer, a distributed controller is constructed based on an improved artificial potential field method, integrating collision avoidance control laws derived from a spring-damper model, dynamic obstacle-avoidance laws that account for obstacle velocities, and formation coordination control laws grounded in consensus theory. In the coordination control layer, a real-time local target selection strategy is established to guide the virtual leader to precisely track the global path, and a dual-mode switching mechanism based on environmental complexity is constructed to dynamically adjust the priority between formation maintenance and autonomous obstacle-avoidance tasks. Comparative experimental results show that the proposed DASRRT* algorithm reduces path planning time by an average of 34.78% and shortens path length by 1.15%. Simulation results for formation flight demonstrate that the proposed hierarchical control framework can adaptively adjust control modes in response to changes in environmental complexity, exhibiting strong adaptability to complex environments and a good ability to generalize to various scenes.