Autoimmune thyroiditis (Hashimoto’s thyroiditis) is the most common autoimmune disease. It most often manifests itself as hypothyroidism but may also present with euthyroidism or even hyperthyroidism. The etiopathogenesis of autoimmune thyroiditis is still unclear. However, in addition to genetic and epigenetic factors, many environmental factors are known to increase the risk of developing AIT. In this review, we aimed to collect and analyze data connected with environmental factors and autoimmune thyroiditis development. Our review indicates iodine intake, vitamin D deficiency, selenium deficiency, viral infections caused by Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV), Human parvovirus B19 (PVB19), Human herpesvirus 6A (HHV-6A) and Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), bacterial infection caused by Helicobacter pylori, microbiome disruption, medications such as interferon-alpha and tyrosine kinase inhibitors, as well as stress, climate, and smoking can influence the risk of the occurrence of autoimmune thyroiditis. Having knowledge of risk factors allows for making changes to one’s diet and lifestyle that will reduce the risk of developing the disease and alleviate the course of autoimmune thyroiditis.

SHBG is a glycoprotein that not only controls serum sex hormone levels but is also strongly correlated with metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular risk, thyroid function, gynecological conditions, and even the process of carcinogenesis. Synthesis of SHBG is controlled by many factors related to obesity, lipogenesis, inflammatory status, and genetic predisposition. By influencing the bioavailability of sex hormones, SHBG regulates their effects not only on the reproductive system, but also cardiomyocytes, vascular epithelium, and more. In this review, we aim to gather and summarize current knowledge on the physiology of SHBG and its association with cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, DM 2, thyroid function, PCOS, hypogonadism, infertility, and its correlations with oral contraception. What is more, genetic alterations are mentioned to highlight SHBG as a potential new diagnostic marker. Furthermore, we assess the clinical usefulness of this parameter in the diagnosis and treatment of patients suffering from the above-specified conditions.

Acne vulgaris presents multifactorial pathogenesis, which may include insulin resistance. To investigate whether insulin resistance is a causative factor in acne vulgaris development, this cohort study and a systematic review were conducted. A cohort of 41 acne vulgaris patients and 47 healthy BMI-matched controls were recruited. Glucose and insulin fasting serum levels were obtained and the HOMA-IR was calculated; insulin resistance was diagnosed in cases with a HOMA-IR value over 2.1. The mean ± SD values for glucose fasting serum level were as follows: 94.88 ± 7.731 (mg/dL) in the study group and 79.51 ± 7.175 (mg/dL) in the controls (p < 0.001). The mean ± SD insulin fasting serum levels were 14.47 ± 6.394 (µIU/mL) and 11.83 ± 4.309 (µIU/mL) (p = 0.059), respectively. The HOMA-IR mean ± SD value calculated for the study group was 3.4 ± 1.49 and, in the control group, it was 2.34 ± 0.909 (p < 0.001). Out of 41 patients, 32 were diagnosed with insulin resistance (78%), and 26 of the 47 controls were diagnosed with IR (55%) (p = 0.026). An insulin resistance diagnosis was statistically more common among the acne patients, compared to the controls. In the articles reviewed in this paper, insulin resistance was found to be more frequent in acne vulgaris patients. Both our study and the papers analyzed in the review indicate that insulin resistance might be an independent factor in acne vulgaris development and should be considered when diagnosing and treating acne.

Osteoporosis is a serious implication of Turner syndrome (TS). Common methods for the treatment of TS are growth hormone (GHT) and estrogen replacement therapy (ERT). We examined the relationship between the treatment of TS and bone mineral density (BMD) of the lumbar spine. The purpose of our study was to show the currency of BMD states among patients with TS for treatment with GHT and ERT. We searched databases for studies published from inception to April 2023. The articles were related to TS, osteoporosis, ERT, GHT, BMD and treatment patients with TS. We applied the selection criteria: lumbar spine values at L1–L4; dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA); treatment which was applied: one group of articles: ERT and two group of articles: GHT; results performed as means ± SD. In total, 79 articles were analyzed, of which 20 studies were included and 5 were considered for meta-analysis. The total number of women in the articles selected was 71. Based on the results of the meta-analysis, the effect of ERT on BMD demonstrated a significant increase in BMD (the standardized mean difference in the random model was 0.593 g/cm², 95% CI: 0.0705 to 1.116; p = 0.026), which showed that treatment with estrogen particularly increases bone mass during treatment, which contributes to reducing the risk of fractures. The effect of GHT on BMD demonstrated a non-significant decrease in BMD in patients with TS. The results for growth hormone show that this therapy does not improve bone density. However, our review emphasizes the beneficial effect of supplementing growth hormone (GH) on the clinical presentation of TS.

Acne vulgaris is a common disease, which occurs in adolescents as well as adults and has a significant influence on the patient’s quality of life (QoL) in every aspect. Due to resistance to standard therapies, it has become necessary to prospect for new treatment strategies. It is important to highlight that the diagnosis and treatment of the underlying cause of acne such as metabolic and hormonal disorders may significantly improve the effectiveness of acne treatment. The correlation between Insulin Resistance (IR) and acne has been proven. Both disorders share many common occurrence factors and activation pathways. Metformin, an antihyperglycemic agent, seems to be a possible therapy option, not only because of its insulin sensitizing ability but also via plenty of additional effects of this medicine. While the efficiency of metformin therapy in patients with acne and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is well explored, it is still necessary to evaluate it in patients without any endocrinopathies. This meta-analysis aimed to estimate the effectiveness of oral metformin as a monotherapy in acne patients without PCOS or other endocrinopathies. Study selection was performed with included criteria such as no PCOS and other endocrinopathies diagnosed, oral administration of metformin, and metformin in monotherapy. Selected studies contained comparisons in the Global Acne Grading System (GAGS) before and after metformin therapy. Statistical analysis detected significant improvement in skin condition after treatment with metformin.

Down syndrome develops due to the presence of supernumerary chromosome 21. This diagnosis is made in approximately 1:800 live births. The tendency to develop autoimmune disorders like idiopathic arthritis, celiac disease, diabetes mellitus type 1, vitiligo and autoimmune thyroid disease is strongly expressed in patients with Down syndrome. Autoimmune thyroid diseases consisting of Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and Graves’ disease are specifically prevalent in patients with Down syndrome. The aim of our study is to collect available data connecting the pathogenesis and clinical course of autoimmune thyroid diseases in patients with Down syndrome of different ages and compare them to control groups. According to published data, the incidence ratio of Hashimoto’s thyroiditis diagnosis in patients with Down syndrome is elevated compared to in age-matched controls without this chromosomal aberration, similarly to Graves’ disease risk, which is also increased in a group of patients with Down syndrome. What is more, both Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and Graves’ disease are diagnosed at an earlier age than in the healthy population and are not correlated with gender or a family history of autoimmune diseases.