Volleyball referees, as athletes and staff members, are exposed to different stress levels which can be determined by measuring pre- and post-match levels of salivary cortisol (C) and alpha-amylase (AA). This study aimed to determine the dynamics of stress biomarkers in referees during official volleyball matches and the connection to the roles or level of competition. The participants in this study were nine international volleyball referees (three females and six males) with a mean chronological age of 48.23 ± 2.31 years. In this study, saliva samples were collected during 24 official matches during the European championship for senior women’s teams (Eurovolley 2021). The AA activity and C concentrations were determined from saliva samples. When the referees’ roles were assessed in line with their duties, the first referees’ salivary C levels showed a significant increase between the pre- and post-match measurements (p = 0.01), while in the second referees remained low. The reserve and challenge referees demonstrated a significant drop in their C concentrations (p = 0.00 and p = 0.02, respectively). Additionally, when assessing AA which accounts for the responsibilities of referees and the intensity of competition, the first (p = 0.06 and p = 0.07) and second referees (p = 0.01 and p = 0.00) showed an increase between the pre- and post-match measurements, respectively. At the same time, the AA activity did not show any significant change concerning the reserve and challenge referees. Our results indicate that referees’ roles and the level of competition may cause higher responses in “active referee roles”—mainly the first and second referees—while reserve and challenge referees showed no increase or even a decrease in the measured biomarkers. The observed changes in the stress markers can be explained by psychological or emotional effects and are dependent on the level of competition and the role referees are fulfilling.

Stress is defined as a reaction of the body to any given stressor, external or internal. These stressors are common among participants in sports. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the dynamics of two stress biomarkers during an official cliff diving competition. The sample of participants included six professional cliff divers (three females and three males). Their salivary cortisol (C) and alpha-amylase (AA) samples were collected during a 3-day competition (four samples on day 1 and six samples on days 2 and 3). The analysis of the results showed a non-significant increase in AA from day one to day three. On the other hand, C has an increase in the first two days (0.58 ± 0.16 µg/mL–0.61 ± 0.23 µg/mL) and then a decrease in the last competition day (0.53 ± 0.23 µg/mL). Analysis of samples collected during each day demonstrates a fluctuation of the biomarkers. For AA, the sample after the training dive on the 2nd day has the highest value (326.34 ± 280.73 U/mL), whereas on day 3, the samples after training and before the competition dive are the highest (364.50 ± 287.13 U/mL; 466.49 ± 218.39 U/mL). Regarding C levels, the sample after the competition dive tends to show the highest values (0.66 ± 0.17 µg/mL; 0.89 ± 0.29 µg/mL; 0.76 ± 0.32 µg/mL, respectively). Furthermore, the correlation between the results of competition and biomarkers is not significant. These results demonstrate how cliff diving competition tends to have a high impact on the sympathetic nervous system, as observed mainly in AA dynamics. One might contend that even though there is no significant physical strain, cliff divers demonstrate heightened stress biomarker levels that could affect their performance and focus while diving.

Rowing races require extreme physical and psychological effort from every athlete. This study aimed to determine the dynamics of the salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase, as well as blood lactate throughout the specific load represented by a 6 km rowing race, conducted on a rowing ergometer. The sample consisted of 11 junior and senior rowers from HVK Gusar in Split (n = 11) who actively competed at club and international levels. Variables consisted of three repeated oral samples of the hormone cortisol and the enzyme alpha-amylase determined in saliva and three repeated blood lactate samples. Potential differences in the levels of the studied variables at different time points were determined using a repeated-measures ANOVA test. The results showed different dynamics of hormonal (cortisol) and metabolic (alpha-amylase and lactates) variables. All variables experienced a significant post-race increase, while other changes were not significant. The results highlighted that high-intensity rowing causes an increase in the body’s cortisol, alpha-amylase, and lactate levels. This should be implemented in rowing training to find the right balance between high and low-intensity rowing, enabling athletes’ progression while reducing the risk of overtraining.