Milk is a food of high nutritional value processed by heat treatment. Heat treatment of milk is a technological process designed to inhibit the growth of microorganisms and extend the shelf life of products. The heating process directly affects the molecular structure of whey proteins by the process of denaturation. It leads to the formation of a whey protein–casein polymer complex. Based on these facts, milk heat-treatment conditions should be controlled during milk processing. This work focuses on describing the whey protein denaturation process and formation of the complex of whey protein with casein. The effect of heat treatment on individual milk protein fractions alpha-casein (α-cas), beta-casein (β-cas), kappa-casein (κ-cas), beta-lactoglobulin (β-lg) and alpha-lactalbumin (α-la) was studied by SDS-PAGE. Formation of the whey protein–casein polymer complex increased significantly (p < 0.05) on increasing the temperature and duration of the heat treatment.

Microplastic food contamination has become a growing concern due to its potential impacts on human health. Microplastics are tiny plastic particles less than 5mm in size that can originate from various sources, such as cosmetics, textiles, and plastic packaging. These particles can enter the food chain through multiple routes, such as the environment, food processing, and packaging. They can accumulate in different types of food, including seafood, drinking water, and agricultural produce. Exposure to microplastics through food consumption is a significant concern, as it is difficult to avoid and can potentially cause adverse health effects. Microplastics can accumulate in the human body and have been linked to various health issues, such as inflammation, organ damage, and the disruption of endocrine and immune systems. Additionally, microplastics can act as vectors for harmful chemicals and pathogens, further exacerbating their potential health impacts. Several studies have documented the presence of microplastics in different food products, with varying concentrations depending on the type of food and its origin. Due to their filter-feeding behaviour, contamination levels are exceptionally high in seafood, such as fish and shellfish. Additionally, studies have found microplastics in bottled and tap water, beer, honey, salt, and even air. Efforts to mitigate microplastic contamination of food include developing better waste management practices, promoting biodegradable and compostable packaging, and improving food processing methods. However, much more research is needed to fully understand the extent of microplastic contamination in food and its potential impacts on human health. Microplastic contamination of food is a complex issue requiring a multidisciplinary approach to address its ecological and human health implications fully. By raising awareness and promoting sustainable practices, we can work towards reducing our exposure to microplastics in food and protecting public health.

Milk testing and quality control should be carried out at all stages of the dairy chain. Milk can be tested for quantity, organoleptic characteristic, compositional characteristic, physical and chemical characteristics, hygienic characteristics, adulteration or drug residues. The content of the major constituents of raw milk is important for milk payment system. Enzymes naturally present in the milk can change the chemical composition of raw milk. Also, enzymes secreted by bacteria or enzymes from somatic cells can degrade the raw milk composition. Products of these degradation reactions can have undesirable effects on milk structure, smell and taste. It is very important that farm-fresh raw milk be cooled immediately to not more than 8 °C in the case of daily collection, or not more than 6 °C if collection is not daily. During transport the cold chain must be maintained. An authorized person, properly trained in the appropriate technique, shall perform sampling of bulk milk in farm. Laboratory samples should be dispatched immediately after sampling to the dairy company and consequently to the testing laboratory. The time for dispatch of the samples to the testing laboratory should be as short as possible, preferably within 24 h. Laboratory samples shall be transported and stored at temperature 1 to 5 °C. Higher temperatures may adversely affect the composition of the laboratory sample and may cause disputes between the farmer, the dairy company and the laboratory. The effect of refrigerated storage at temperature 4 °C during 24 h on the composition of raw milk were investigated in this work, because we wanted to know how the milk composition will be changed and how the laboratory results will be affected. In many cases, the samples are not preserved with chemical preservants like azidiol, bronopol, potassium dichromate or Microtabs. We found, that the composition of raw cows' milk after 24 was changed significantly (p >0.005). We found an average decrease in the fat content of -0.04 g/100g, increase in the protein content of +0.02 g/100g, increase in the lactose content of +0.02 g/100g, increase in the solid-not-fat content of +0.02 g/100g and decrease in the total solid content of -0.02 g/100g. It is necessary to cool the raw cows' milk after the milking to decrease the changes in milk composition caused mainly due to the lipolytic activity of lipase

The agri-food sector is a major contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, accounting for approximately 30% of global energy consumption and a substantial share of CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O emissions. As global food systems transition toward sustainability, carbon footprint quantification has become critical for reducing environmental impacts and achieving carbon neutrality goals aligned with the European Green Deal. This paper provides a comprehensive review of methodologies for carbon footprint assessment, including the GHG Protocol – Product Standard, ISO 14064, ISO 14067, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), and PAS 2050, and their applications in food production systems. A case study on the wheat-to-bread supply chain illustrates the practical application of these frameworks in carbon footprint calculation. The study explores key challenges in carbon footprint tracking, such as data availability and quality issues, complexity of global supply chains, standardization gaps, and financial constraints for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). It further highlights emerging digital technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, and IoT sensors, which enhance emission monitoring, optimize agricultural inputs, and improve transparency in food supply chains. Additionally, the study examines the role of policy frameworks, particularly EU regulations, and the impact of consumer behavior on sustainable food choices. Findings indicate that livestock and fisheries remain the highest-emitting subsectors, while plant-based foods have significantly lower carbon footprints. Integrating digital solutions, standardized methodologies, and regulatory incentives is crucial for improving carbon accounting accuracy and accelerating decarbonization efforts. The paper concludes with recommendations for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers, emphasizing harmonized reporting frameworks, improved access to open carbon databases, and investment in climate-smart agriculture. Strengthening consumer engagement and implementing eco-labeling strategies can further drive demand for low-carbon food products, supporting the transition toward a sustainable and climate-resilient food system.

Open Access Agricultural Journals published by Institute of Agricultural Economics and Information

European Union legislation laying down rules for the dairy sector. The legislation defines the conditions under which milk and milk products intended for human consumption can be imported into the EU. Milk and milk products must come only from third countries that appear on the list of authorized countries. Establishments, where milk and milk products are produced, must be approved for export. The TRACES system is used on imports and the consignment must be accompanied by a certificate. This system ensures product traceability and prevents the introduction of diseases. An important role is delegated to the designated border control posts (BCPs) where the appropriate customs and veterinary inspections are performed by government institutions of the country. The European Union has adopted legislation to ensure the safety of food placed on the market in EU member countries. This legislation sets general hygienic requirements for food production based on the good manufacturing practice and the HACCP system. The criteria for microorganisms, chemicals, and applicable food additives are set. Also, the legislation contains requirements for product labeling. Part of the legislation concerns the common organization of the market in milk and milk products. These regulations contain rules for direct payments, subsidies, define the school milk system, etc. Specific legislation creates rules for organic bio food production, for production and labeling of products with the Protected Geographical Indication, Protected Designation of Origin, and Traditional Specialty Guaranteed. There is also legislation that defines the labeling of products intended for specific populations, e.g. gluten-free foods, lactose-free foods, etc. Areas not regulated by the legislation include the labeling of products with certification marks designed to highlight the suitability of food for religious purposes or quality certification.