The neurocranium in birds provides valuable insights into their morphological diversity, including adaptations related to brain size, facial shaping, and environmental factors. This study analyzes the neurocranial shape characteristics and size of chickens with similar genetic backgrounds. By examining the neurocranial shape variation in chickens of the same age and sex, the study aims to understand the factors contributing to morphological diversity within this specific group. 3D geometric morphometrics was used to analyze 235 neurocrania from four chicken breeds. The analysis revealed significant differences in centroid size among the chicken breeds. The largest neurocranium centroid size was found in Sasso chickens., which were statistically separated from Atak-S. Additionally, centroid size effectively differentiates between Lohmann Brown and Lohmann Sandy chicken breeds. The most significant shape variation concerned the width of the rostral part of the frontal bone. However, according to the PC1 value, the shape variation was observed within rather than between groups. Lohmann Sandy chickens exhibited higher variability in neurocranial shape, suggesting greater shape diversity within this breed than others. As for shape analysis, the breeds showed closer similarity to each other. Lohmann Sandy chickens are characterized by positive PC1 value, with the rostral end of the frontal region inclined more ventrally, and a more extensive basioccipital region. Sasso chickens have a more dome-shaped middle part of the frontal region than other breeds. The study also identified the most significant shape variation among the study samples, observed at the rostral part of the frontal bone. These findings contribute to understanding the genetic and environmental influences shaping neurocranial morphology in chickens. Similar studies in different bird species and subspecies offer valuable insights into avian biology and adaptation.

The reason for undertaking this study was to investigate soft tissue response to high-intensity laser therapy (HILT) by measuring changes in skin surface temperature and longissimus dorsi muscle tone in the thoracolumbar back area in Thoroughbreds with back pain and diagnosed with and without Kissing Spines Syndrome (KSS). Thoroughbreds aged 3–4 years with clinically presented back pain underwent a radiological examination (to assess a lack or presence of KSS) and longissimus dorsi muscle palpation (to assess muscle tone and pain degree). The subjects were divided into two groups, those with KSS (n = 10) and those without KSS (n = 10). A single HILT treatment on the longissimus dorsi muscle, on the left side, was performed. Thermographic examination and palpation were repeated before and after HILT to assess changes in skin surface temperature and muscle pain response. In both groups, HILT caused a significant increase in skin surface temperature of 2.5 °C on average and a palpation score reduction of 1.5 degrees on average (p = 0.005 for both measurements), without differences in any outcome measures between the groups. Furthermore, the correlation between changes in the average skin surface temperature and the average palpation scores in horses with and without KSS were negative (rho = 0.071 and r = −0.180, respectively; p > 0.05). The results of the present study are encouraging, but further studies with larger samples, a longer follow-up period and comparisons with placebo control groups are needed to draw a more valid conclusion.

The present study aimed to describe the skull and mandibles of the brown bear (U. arctos) from the Dancing Bear Belitsa Park using advanced 3D morpho-geometric techniques. The objective was to explore how sexual dimorphism and size influence cranial structures using advanced 3D geometric morphometric methods. Three-dimensional models of the skulls and mandibles of 12 brown bears were used. Differences in skull morphology between male and female brown bears were observed in this study. The male brown bear skull, larger than the female, exhibited a more pronounced extension of the upper part of the nuchal region towards the posterior. Additionally, the posterior part of the frontal region appeared notably thinner in male brown bears compared to females. Analysis of the mandible revealed that the masseteric fossa was more developed in males than females. These shape differences between males and females were found to be influenced by body size. Statistical analyses indicated a significant allometric effect of body size on skull PC1 values, suggesting that giant bears tend to have more elongated skulls. This implies a relationship in which larger individuals exhibit greater cranial elongation. In contrast, mandible PC1 values showed no size-related variation, indicating that mandibular shape is less influenced by overall body size. However, PC2 values in the mandible increased significantly with larger specimens, indicating a larger masseteric fossa in larger bears. This morphological adaptation potentially enhances feeding efficiency and bite strength in larger individuals, reflecting functional adaptations in brown-bear mandibular morphology. These findings contribute to our understanding of sexual dimorphism and size-related morphological adaptations in brown bears, providing insights into their adaptation biology and ecological roles within their habitats.

The aim of this study was to identify the presence and magnitude of right–left asymmetry in the fore- and hindlimb long bones of adult guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus), and, in parallel, to evaluate sex-related differences in shape and size in the same bones. For this purpose, the stylopodium and zeugopodium bones were analyzed together. Computed tomography data were obtained from all animals under a standard protocol, three-dimensional bone models were generated from these datasets, and these models formed the basis for the geometric morphometric analyses. The analyses showed that sex accounted for a small but consistent proportion of shape variation (approximately 5–7%) in the antebrachium, femur and crus, whereas this effect was more limited in the humerus. Asymmetry analysis based on paired right–left data revealed that directional asymmetry was generally low, whereas fluctuating asymmetry varied across bones. The highest asymmetry was detected in the antebrachium, the crus showed an intermediate level, and the stylopodial elements, humerus and femur, were comparatively more symmetrical. This pattern is consistent with the biomechanical expectation that small right–left deviations tend to accumulate in distal and functionally more active forelimb segments that are positioned farther from the trunk. In conclusion, the findings indicate that asymmetry arises gradually as a function of bone position and functional use rather than from a single growth error, and that distal forelimb elements should therefore be given particular attention in asymmetry studies.

The study of the brain electrical activity is used in various fields of medicine, veterinary medicine and neuroscience. With a focus of veterinary medicine, the electroencephalography (EEG) method is widely used to examine cognitive abilities of pets, their behavior and human-pet relationships, as well as to diagnose neu-ropathologies in adult animals, mainly dogs and cats. Evaluation of EEG data involves performing visual anal-ysis when working with a small amount of information. In recent years, however, more and more attention has been paid to automated software processing of EEG recordings (the so-called quantitative EEG (qEEG) anal-ysis), due to its precision, specificity and ability to valuate a large amount of information. Various monitoring systems have also been developed to calculate indices of consciousness used in anesthesiology to monitor the depth of anesthesia. EEG has yet to establish its importance and place. The number of scientific publications devoted to EEG is growing, but more research is needed to reach a consensus on individual methods for eval-uation and processing EEG data. The present review aims to summarize what is known to date, describing the methods for analysis and interpretation of EEGs and its application in veterinary medicine.

Development of modern veterinary neurology requires non-invasive and reliable methods for studying brain activity in animals. Electroencephalography (EEG) is a fundamental method for registering and analyzing the electrical activity of the brain and is increasingly used both in clinical practice and in experimental studies in dogs. This book chapter reviews the basic principles of non-invasive EEG monitoring in dogs, with a focus on the application of EEG to assess the functional state of the central nervous system (CNS). The physiological mechanisms underlying the EEG signal, the features of its recording in dogs, as well as the basic methods for analyzing and interpreting EEG data, are presented. Attention is given to the physiology of sleep in dogs and the characteristic EEG patterns observed in different stages of sleep. The neurophysiological mechanisms associated with dreaming are also reviewed, as well as the potential role of sleep in the processes of neuronal plasticity, recovery, and neuroprotection. The chapter also discusses the main clinical applications of non-invasive neurophysiological monitoring in dogs, including the diagnosis and follow-up of epilepsy, sleep disorders, and other neurological diseases. The importance of integrating EEG with other physiological monitoring methods, modern approaches for more accurate assessment of brain function, and future prospects are emphasized.