Most attention about the acoustic effects of marine survey sound sources on marine mammals has focused on airgun arrays, with other common sources receiving less scrutiny. Sound levels above hearing threshold (sensation levels) were modeled for six marine mammal species and seven different survey sources in shallow water. The model indicated that odontocetes were most likely to hear sounds from mid-frequency sources (fishery, communication, and hydrographic systems), mysticetes from low-frequency sources (sub-bottom profiler and airguns), and pinnipeds from both mid- and low-frequency sources. High-frequency sources (side-scan and multibeam) generated the lowest estimated sensation levels for all marine mammal species groups.

In the shift toward sustainable energy production, offshore wind power has experienced notable expansion. Several projects to install floating offshore wind farms in European waters, ranging from a few to hundreds of turbines, are currently in the planning stage. The underwater operational sound generated by these floating turbines has the potential to affect marine ecosystems, although the extent of this impact remains underexplored. This study models the sound radiated by three planned floating wind farms in the Strait of Sicily (Italy), an area of significant interest for such developments. These wind farms vary in size (from 250 MW to 2800 MW) and environmental characteristics, including bathymetry and seabed substrates. Propagation losses were modeled in one-third-octave bands using JASCO Applied Sciences’ Marine Operations Noise Model, which is based on the parabolic equation method, combined with the BELLHOP beam-tracing model. Two sound speed profiles, corresponding to winter and summer, were applied to simulate seasonal variations in sound propagation. Additionally, sound from an offshore supply ship was incorporated with one of these wind farms to simulate maintenance operations. Results indicate that sound from operating wind farms could reach a broadband sound pressure level (L_p) of 100 dB re 1 µPa as far as 67 km from the wind farm. Nevertheless, this sound level is generally lower than the ambient sound in areas with intense shipping traffic. The findings are discussed in relation to local background sound levels and current guidelines and regulations. The implications for environmental management include the need for comprehensive monitoring and mitigation strategies to protect marine ecosystems from potential acoustic disturbances.