Adaptive Automation (AA) is a promising approach to keep the task workload demand within appropriate levels in order to avoid both the under- and overload conditions, hence enhancing the overall performance and safety of the human-machine system. The main issue on the use of AA is how to trigger the AA solutions without affecting the operative task. In this regard, passive Brain-Computer Interface (pBCI) systems are a good candidate to activate automation, since they are able to gather information about the covert behaviour (e.g. mental workload) of a subject by analysing its neurophysiological signals (i.e. brain activity), and without interfering with the ongoing operational activity. We proposed a pBCI system able to trigger AA solutions integrated in a realistic Air Traffic Management (ATM) research simulator developed and hosted at ENAC (École Nationale de l’Aviation Civile of Toulouse, France). Twelve Air Traffic Controller (ATCO) students have been involved in the experiment and they have been asked to perform ATM scenarios with and without the support of the AA solutions. Results demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed pBCI system, since it enabled the AA mostly during the high-demanding conditions (i.e. overload situations) inducing a reduction of the mental workload under which the ATCOs were operating. On the contrary, as desired, the AA was not activated when workload level was under the threshold, to prevent too low demanding conditions that could bring the operator’s workload level towards potentially dangerous conditions of underload.

Over the last decade, passive brain–computer interface (BCI) algorithms and biosignal acquisition technologies have experienced a significant growth that has allowed the real-time analysis of biosignals, with the aim to quantify relevant insights, such as mental and emotional states, of the users. Several passive BCI-based applications have been tested in laboratory settings, and just a few of them in real or, at least, simulated but highly realistic settings. Nevertheless, works performed in laboratory settings are not able to take into account all those factors (artefacts, non-brain influences, other mental states) that could impair the usability of passive BCIs during real applications, naturally characterized by higher complexity. The present review takes into account the most recent trends in using advanced passive BCI technologies in real settings, especially for real-time mental state evaluations in operational environments, evaluation of team resources, training and expertise assessment, gaming and neuromarketing applications. The objective of the work is to draw a mark on where we are to date and the future challenges, in order to make passive BCIs closer to being integrated into daily life applications.

The new technological advances achieved during the last decade allowed the scientific community to investigate and employ neurophysiological measures not only for research purposes but also for the study of human behaviour in real and daily life situations. The aim of this review is to understand how and whether neuroscientific technologies can be effectively employed to better understand the human behaviour in real decision-making contexts. To do so, firstly, we will describe the historical development of neuromarketing and its main applications in assessing the sensory perceptions of some marketing and advertising stimuli. Then, we will describe the main neuroscientific tools available for such kind of investigations (e.g., measuring the cerebral electrical or hemodynamic activity, the eye movements, and the psychometric responses). Also, this review will present different brain measurement techniques, along with their pros and cons, and the main cerebral indexes linked to the specific mental states of interest (used in most of the neuromarketing research). Such indexes have been supported by adequate validations from the scientific community and are largely employed in neuromarketing research. This review will also discuss a series of papers that present different neuromarketing applications, such us in-store choices and retail, services, pricing, brand perception, web usability, neuropolitics, evaluation of the food and wine taste, and aesthetic perception of artworks. Furthermore, this work will face the ethical issues arisen on the use of these tools for the evaluation of the human behaviour during decision-making tasks. In conclusion, the main challenges that neuromarketing is going to face, as well as future directions and possible scenarios that could be derived by the use of neuroscience in the marketing field, will be identified and discussed.

Real-world experience is typically multimodal. Evidence indicates that the facilitation in the detection of multisensory stimuli is modulated by the perceptual load, the amount of information involved in the processing of the stimuli. Here, we used a realistic virtual reality environment while concomitantly acquiring Electroencephalography (EEG) and Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) to investigate how multisensory signals impact target detection in two conditions, high and low perceptual load. Different multimodal stimuli (auditory and vibrotactile) were presented, alone or in combination with the visual target. Results showed that only in the high load condition, multisensory stimuli significantly improve performance, compared to visual stimulation alone. Multisensory stimulation also decreases the EEG-based workload. Instead, the perceived workload, according to the “NASA Task Load Index” questionnaire, was reduced only by the trimodal condition (i.e., visual, auditory, tactile). This trimodal stimulation was more effective in enhancing the sense of presence, that is the feeling of being in the virtual environment, compared to the bimodal or unimodal stimulation. Also, we show that in the high load task, the GSR components are higher compared to the low load condition. Finally, the multimodal stimulation (Visual-Audio-Tactile—VAT and Visual-Audio—VA) induced a significant decrease in latency, and a significant increase in the amplitude of the P300 potentials with respect to the unimodal (visual) and visual and tactile bimodal stimulation, suggesting a faster and more effective processing and detection of stimuli if auditory stimulation is included. Overall, these findings provide insights into the relationship between multisensory integration and human behavior and cognition.

One century after the first recording of human electroencephalographic (EEG) signals, EEG has become one of the most used neuroimaging techniques. The medical devices industry is now able to produce small and reliable EEG systems, enabling a wide variety of applications also with no-clinical aims, providing a powerful tool to neuroscientific research. However, these systems still suffer from a critical limitation, consisting in the use of wet electrodes, that are uncomfortable and require expertise to install and time from the user. In this context, dozens of different concepts of EEG dry electrodes have been recently developed, and there is the common opinion that they are reaching traditional wet electrodes quality standards. However, although many papers have tried to validate them in terms of signal quality and usability, a comprehensive comparison of different dry electrode types from multiple points of view is still missing. The present work proposes a comparison of three different dry electrode types, selected among the main solutions at present, against wet electrodes, taking into account several aspects, both in terms of signal quality and usability. In particular, the three types consisted in gold-coated single pin, multiple pins and solid-gel electrodes. The results confirmed the great standards achieved by dry electrode industry, since it was possible to obtain results comparable to wet electrodes in terms of signals spectra and mental states classification, but at the same time drastically reducing the time of montage and enhancing the comfort. In particular, multiple-pins and solid-gel electrodes overcome gold-coated single-pin-based ones in terms of comfort.

Goal: This minireview aims to highlight recent important aspects to consider and evaluate when passive brain-computer interface (pBCI) systems would be developed and used in operational environments, and remarks future directions of their applications. Methods: Electroencephalography (EEG) based pBCI has become an important tool for real-time analysis of brain activity since it could potentially provide covertly-without distracting the user from the main task-and objectively-not affected by the subjective judgment of an observer or the user itself-information about the operator cognitive state. Results: Different examples of pBCI applications in operational environments and new adaptive interface solutions have been presented and described. In addition, a general overview regarding the correct use of machine learning techniques (e.g., which algorithm to use, common pitfalls to avoid, etc.) in the pBCI field has been provided. Conclusion: Despite recent innovations on algorithms and neurotechnology, pBCI systems are not completely ready to enter the market yet, mainly due to limitations of the EEG electrodes technology, and algorithms reliability and capability in real settings. Significance: High complexity and safety critical systems (e.g., airplanes, ATM interfaces) should adapt their behaviors and functionality accordingly to the user' actual mental state. Thus, technologies (i.e., pBCIs) able to measure in real time the user's mental states would result very useful in such “high risk” environments to enhance human machine interaction, and so increase the overall safety.