High‐moisture extrusion cooking (HMEC) is an efficient method for converting proteins and polysaccharides into fibrous structure that is used in the industrial production of meat analogs. The purpose of this review is to systematically evaluate current knowledge regarding the modification of protein structure including denaturation and reassembly upon extrusion processing and to correlate this understanding to the structure of the final products. Although there is no consensus on the relative importance of a certain type of bond on extrudates’ structure, literature suggests that, regardless of moisture level, these linkages and interactions give rise to distinctive hierarchical order. Both noncovalent and disulfide bonds contribute to the extrudates’ fibrous structure. At high water levels, hydrogen and disulfide bonds play a dominant role in extrudates’ texture. The process parameters including cooking temperature, screw speed, and moisture content have significant albeit different levels of impact on the texturization process. Their correlation with the ingredients’ physiochemical properties provides a greater insight into the process–structure–function relationship of meat analogs. The tendency of protein and polysaccharide blends to phase separate rather than produce a homogeneous mix is a particularly important aspect that leads to the formation of fibrous layers when extruded. This review shows that systematic studies are required to measure and explain synergistic and competitive interactions between proteins and other ingredients such as carbohydrates with a focus on their incompatibility. The wide range of plant protein source can be utilized in the HMEC process to produce texturized products, including meat analogs.

The effect of high power ultrasound waves on physical, biochemical, and microbial properties of meat have been the subject of a great deal of interest in recent years. The present review details the basic principles underlying the effects of ultrasound on the properties of food systems, followed by discussion of specific effects of high power ultrasound on meat products, including muscle, cellular, and subcellular components. In addition, the specific effects of high power ultrasound on the following parameters are discussed: enzyme activities and efficiencies, muscle proteolysis, quality criteria such as tenderness; extraction of protein, gelation, and restructuring of meat products and germicidal properties against meat micro-organisms.

A confectionery gel (CG) consists of high sugar components of sucrose and glucose syrup, combined with gelling components such as starch, gelatin, or pectin, along with food acid, flavourings and colourings. Common CG products include “jelly snakes,” “jelly babies,” “jelly beans,” and form a portion of the lucrative confectionery market; however, there are continual consumer demands for more interesting and innovative products that have new and exciting textures, flavors and appearances. Improving or modifying CG textures can meet these demands, but first an understanding of how the behaviour and structure of the gel is developed must be achieved. Companies that will gain a competitive advantage in the confectionery market will be those able to actively manipulate and control sensory properties to meet exacting customer demands. This paper is a review of literature available on confectionery gels, their components, and factors that may affect their microstructure, texture, and rheology.