Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC-EVs) have been proposed as a novel therapeutic tool with numerous clinically related advantages. However, their characteristics and functionality are dependent on the source of MSCs and their cell culture conditions. Fetal bovine serum (FBS) provides a source of nutrients and growth factors to the cultured cells. However, certain pitfalls are associated with its supplementation to the culture media, including introduction of exogenous FBS-derived EVs to the cultured cells. Thus, recent practices recommend utilization of serum-free (SF) media or EV-depleted FBS. On the contrary, evidence suggests that the immunomodulatory ability of MSC-EVs can be improved by exposing MSCs to an inflammatory (IF) environment. The objective of this study was to (1) compare EVs isolated from two tissue sources of MSCs that were exposed to various cell culture conditions and (2) to evaluate their anti-inflammatory effects. Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BM-MSCs) and umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (UC-MSCs) were exposed to either a SF media environment, an IF environment, or media supplemented with 5% EV-depleted FBS. Following isolation of MSC-EVs, the isolates were quantified and evaluated for particle size, phenotypic changes, and their immunomodulatory potential. A statistically significant difference was not identified on the yield and protein concentration of different isolates of EVs from BM-MSCs and UC-MSCs, and all isolates had a circular appearance as evaluated via electron microscopy. A significant difference was identified on the phenotype of different EVs isolates; however, all isolates expressed classical markers such as CD9, CD63, and CD81. The addition of BM-derived MSC-EVs from FBS environment or UC-derived MSC-EVs from IF environment resulted in statistically significant downregulation of IL-6 messenger RNA (mRNA) in stimulated leukocytes. This study confirms that EVs produced by different MSC sources and cell culture conditions affect their phenotype and their immunomodulatory capacities.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of death and disability in pediatric patients and often results in delayed neural development and altered connectivity, leading to lifelong learning, memory, behavior, and motor function deficits. Induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural stem cells (iNSCs) may serve as a novel multimodal therapeutic as iNSCs possess neuroprotective, regenerative, and cell-replacement capabilities post-TBI. In this study, we evaluated the effects of iNSC treatment on cellular, tissue, and functional recovery in a translational controlled cortical impact TBI piglet model. Five days post-craniectomy (n = 6) or TBI (n = 18), iNSCs (n = 7) or PBS (n = 11) were injected into perilesional brain tissue. Modified Rankin Scale (mRS) neurological evaluation, magnetic resonance imaging, and immunohistochemistry were performed over the 12-week study period. At 12-weeks post-transplantation, iNSCs showed long-term engraftment and differentiation into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. iNSC treatment enhanced endogenous neuroprotective and regenerative activities indicated by decreasing intracerebral immune responses, preserving endogenous neurons, and increasing neuroblast formation. These cellular changes corresponded with decreased hemispheric atrophy, midline shift, and lesion volume as well as the preservation of cerebral blood flow. iNSC treatment increased piglet survival and decreased mRS scores. The results of this study in a predictive pediatric large-animal pig model demonstrate that iNSC treatment is a robust multimodal therapeutic that has significant promise in potentially treating human pediatric TBI patients.