The disease of osteoporosis is characterized by impaired bone structure and an increased risk of fractures. There is a significant impact of cytokines and hormones on bone homeostasis and the diagnosis of osteoporosis. As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), osteoporosis is defined as having a bone mineral density (BMD) that is 2.5 standard deviations (SD) or more below the average for young and healthy women (T score < −2.5 SD). Cytokines and hormones, particularly in the remodeling of bone between osteoclasts and osteoblasts, control the differentiation and activation of bone cells through cytokine networks and signaling pathways like the nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL)/the receptor of RANKL (RANK)/osteoprotegerin (OPG) axis, while estrogen, parathyroid hormones, testosterone, and calcitonin influence bone density and play significant roles in the treatment of osteoporosis. This review aims to examine the roles of cytokines and hormones in the pathophysiology of osteoporosis, evaluating current diagnostic methods, and highlighting new technologies that could help for early detection and treatment of osteoporosis.

The vulnerability of skin wounds has made efficient wound dressing a challenging issue for decades, seeking to mimic the natural microenvironment of cells to facilitate cell binding, augmentation, and metamorphosis. Many three-dimensional (3D) bioprinted hydrogel-based configurations have been developed using high-tech devices to overcome the limitations of traditional dressing materials. Based on a material perspective, this review examines current state-of-the-art 3D bioprinting for hydrogel-based dressings, including both their advantages and limitations. Accordingly, their potential applications in terms of their performance in vitro and in vivo, as well as their adaptability to clinical settings, were investigated. Moreover, different configurations of 3D bioprinters are discussed. Finally, a roadmap for advancing wound dressings fabricated with 3D bioprinting is presented.