The dry leaf of Turpinia arguta (Lindl.) Seem. is used in traditional Chinese medicine as a quick-acting product for sore throat and pharyngitis relief. Samples of T. arguta were collected from 40 different habitats mostly located in Jiangxi Province, and leaf appearance traits and dry matter yield were analyzed. HPLC was used to quantify ligustroflavone and rhoifolin, the pharmacological-quality markers for this species, according to the 2020 Edition of Chinese Pharmacopoeia. The correlations between leaf-measurable traits, ligustroflavone and rhoifolin contents, and climate factors were subsequently assessed using Pearson’s two-tailed correlation test and redundancy analysis. The highest dry matter yields were found in locations S(G-mt), Q(J-t), and A(X-t). Ligustroflavone and rhoifolin contents ranged from 0.023% to 1.336% and 0.008% to 0.962%, respectively; the highest levels of ligustroflavone and rhoifolin compounds were found in locations A(X-t) and Y(B-mt). Leaf morphology was influenced by the mean temperature of the warmest quarter, while leaf thickness was affected by the minimum temperature of the coldest month, precipitation seasonality, and solar radiation. Larger and thicker leaves predicted higher yields of ligustroflavone and rhoifolin compounds in T. arguta under Chinese southern conditions, such as those in Anyuan and Quannan counties. Our findings suggest that enhancing the mean diurnal temperature range and implementing appropriate shading during cultivation can enhance the ligustroflavone and rhoifolin compounds of T. arguta.