The present study investigated the effects of honey compared with a traditional carbohydrate based sports nutrition product (TRAD-CHO) on metabolic and gastrointestinal responses during exercise, as well as exercise capacity. In a randomized crossover design 12 trained males ingested 90 g × hr ⁻¹ of carbohydrate in the form of TRAD-CHO, or honey (HONEY) during 180 min of steady-state cycling undertaken at 90% lactate threshold, followed by a capacity test consisting of a time to fatigue at 120% of lactate threshold. Mean total CHO oxidation (HONEY 2.47 ± 0.37 g × min ⁻¹ , TRAD-CHO 2.41 ± 0.39 g × min ⁻¹ ) and fat oxidation (HONEY 0.44 ± 0.12 g/min, TRAD-CHO 0.42 ± 0.10 g/min) were not different between trials during steady-state cycling ( p = .517). The overall incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms rated as “moderately severe” or worse was low. There was no difference in time to fatigue ( p = .517). There was no difference in breath hydrogen postexercise ( p = .319) and the number of participants in each condition, with >20 parts per million rise from baseline not significantly different between conditions (6: SPORT, 7 HONEY: p = 1.00). From these data, honey could be a potentially alternative fueling option to commercial TRAD-CHO, with the current data providing no evidence of any systematic differences between the conditions on whole-body carbohydrate oxidation and endurance capacity test.

Background/Objectives: Despite increasing awareness of best sports nutrition practices, discrepancies persist between knowledge and behaviour amongst female endurance athletes. Methods: To understand this discrepancy study investigated dietary practices, macronutrient intakes, and influ-encing factors using a multi-method approach. Seventy-two female endurance athletes (42 ± 9 y) completed four-day weighed food diaries, and a subset of twenty athletes (40 ± 10 y) then participated in semi-structured interviews. Quantitative analysis revealed that athletes met the lower end of carbohydrate (CHO) guidelines on rest days (3.0 g·kg⁻¹), but intake fell short on training days, with deficits increasing as training volume rose (moderate: −1.4 g·kg⁻¹, high: −3.5 g·kg⁻¹, very high: −5.5 g·kg⁻¹). Despite awareness of CHO’s role in performance, athletes unintentionally underfuelled, leading to a cumu-lative energy deficit. Energy intake increased by 473 kcal·day⁻¹ per 1000 kcal·day⁻¹ of exercise energy expenditure. In contrast, protein intake was prioritised, with mean in-takes of 1.7 ± 0.7 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹ aligning with recommendations. Results: Qualitative findings iden-tified barriers to CHO intake, including time constraints, diet culture influences and body image concerns. Social and environmental factors, such as household environments and professional nutrition guidance, played a critical role in behaviours. Conclusions: These findings highlight the need for practical, evidence-based nutrition interventions to support fe-male endurance athletes. Personalised education addressing CHO requirements, the psychology/emotions around nutrition, and the influence of social environments may bridge the gap between knowledge and practice, optimising both performance and long-term health outcomes.

Endurance competition preparation involves complex psychological, logistical, and sociocultural factors. This study investigated the pre‐race nutrition practices of female endurance athletes, by applying a newly developed extended Theory of Planned Behaviour, including behavioural execution to the framework to capture real‐world influences (ETPB‐X). Using a convergent mixed‐methods design, 27 female triathletes competing at the 2024 IRONMAN World Championships completed questionnaires, 48‐h food diaries, and semi‐structured interviews before and after the race. Quantitative data ( n = 23) were analysed for energy and macronutrient intake, whereas qualitative data were thematically coded using the conceptual ETPB‐X framework, incorporating attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control (PBC), utilitarian drivers, and behavioural execution. Only 26% (6/23) of athletes achieved carbohydrate loading guidelines (8–12 g·kg ⁻¹ body mass (BM)·day ⁻¹ ), with an overall mean intake of 6.4 ± 2.1 g·kg ⁻¹ BM. Higher carbohydrate intake correlated with faster finish times ( r = −0.50, p = 0.035), whereas fibre intake was positively associated with gastrointestinal (GI) symptom severity ( r = 0.85, p < 0.001). Qualitative findings revealed that adherence to diet plans was influenced by PBC, travel logistics, emotional regulation, and athlete identity. This study provides a novel application of the ETPB‐X framework to pre‐race nutrition in female endurance athletes. Athletes often under‐achieve carbohydrate loading targets despite awareness, with success determined as much by psychosocial and contextual factors as by knowledge. Practically, enhancing PBC, improving planning/preparation, and delivering clear goal‐aligned education may bridge the intention‐behaviour gap. Integrating behavioural frameworks into performance nutrition offers a pathway towards more effective athlete‐centred interventions.

A high dietary carbohydrate intake in the days pre‐competition is recommended to optimize glycogen stores for endurance exercise performance. However, previous reports show high variability in muscle glycogen concentrations between individuals following similar CHO intakes. Therefore, the amount of CHO, duration, and amount of exercise required to maximize glycogen stores pre‐competition remains unclear. The aim of this systematic review and meta‐analysis was to determine the relationship between dietary CHO availability and skeletal muscle glycogen, whilst identifying the effect of other covariates on muscle glycogen concentration. The analysis included trials (randomized or non‐randomized from five online databases) published until June 2026, that reported CHO intake and exercise for ≥ 24 h prior to collection of muscle samples using biopsies to measure skeletal muscle glycogen. Included studies were assessed descriptively and quantitatively using linear and non‐linear regression, and generic inverse‐variance random‐effects meta‐analyses, including subgroups to investigate heterogeneity. Descriptive synthesis included 63 trials ( n = 641 participants), 18 were included within the meta‐analysis. Exploratory linear regression indicated a significant relationship between relative CHO intake and whole muscle glycogen for recreationally active ( r ² = 0.332, p < 0.001) and endurance trained individuals ( r ² = 0.490, p < 0.001). Meta‐analyses revealed increased dietary CHO intake from a low‐moderate (< 6.5 g·kg ⁻¹ ·day ⁻¹ ) to a high‐very high intake (> 6.5 g·kg ⁻¹ ·day ⁻¹ ) significantly increased muscle glycogen concentrations (+191.9 mmol·kg ⁻¹ DM, 95% CI from 142.8 to 241.1 mmol·kg ⁻¹ DM, p < 0.0001) but displayed significant heterogeneity ( p < 0.0001, I ² = 94%). The delta CHO intake between study conditions (expressed as relative g·kg ⁻¹ ·day ⁻¹ and absolute g·day ⁻¹ ) and duration of CHO loading interventions suggested a significant subgroup effect ( p < 0.05) but failed to explain the heterogeneity in muscle glycogen concentration. Glycogen concentration primarily depends on quantity of CHO intake, with period of increased CHO intake, participant training status, and exercise all being key effectors. Based on current findings, to significantly increase pre‐competition muscle glycogen stores athletes should consume > 8 g·kg ⁻¹ ·day ⁻¹ for 36–48 h pre‐competition, with prior glycogen depleting exercise combined with consumption of high glycaemic index CHO allowing more rapid enhancement of stores (24–36 h). However, significant heterogeneity and confounding variables in previous research introduce uncertainty in these recommendations, and further well‐controlled studies are required to determine the true optimal pre‐exercise CHO intake to maximize glycogen concentrations.