Understanding the mechanisms of sodium (Na⁺) influx, effective compartmentalization, and efflux in higher plants is crucial to manipulate Na⁺ accumulation and assure the maintenance of low Na⁺ concentration in the cytosol and, hence, plant tolerance to salt stress. Na⁺ influx across the plasma membrane in the roots occur mainly via nonselective cation channels (NSCCs). Na⁺ is compartmentalized into vacuoles by Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers (NHXs). Na⁺ efflux from the plant roots is mediated by the activity of Na⁺/H⁺ antiporters catalyzed by the salt overly sensitive 1 (SOS1) protein. In animals, ouabain (OU)-sensitive Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase (a P-type ATPase) mediates sodium efflux. The evolution of P-type ATPases in higher plants does not exclude the possibility of sodium efflux mechanisms similar to the Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase-dependent mechanisms characteristic of animal cells. Using novel fluorescence imaging and spectrofluorometric methodologies, an OU-sensitive sodium efflux system has recently been reported to be physiologically active in roots. This review summarizes and analyzes the current knowledge on Na⁺ influx, compartmentalization, and efflux in higher plants in response to salt stress.

Nitric oxide (NO) acts in a concentration and redox-dependent manner to counteract oxidative stress either by directly acting as an antioxidant through scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide anions (O₂⁻*), to form peroxynitrite (ONOO⁻) or by acting as a signaling molecule, thereby altering gene expression. NO can interact with different metal centres in proteins, such as heme-iron, zinc–sulfur clusters, iron–sulfur clusters, and copper, resulting in the formation of a stable metal–nitrosyl complex or production of varied biochemical signals, which ultimately leads to modification of protein structure/function. The thiols (ferrous iron–thiol complex and nitrosothiols) are also involved in the metabolism and mobilization of NO. Thiols bind to NO and transport it to the site of action whereas nitrosothiols release NO after intercellular diffusion and uptake into the target cells. S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) also has the ability to transnitrosylate proteins. It is an NO˙ reservoir and a long-distance signaling molecule. Tyrosine nitration of proteins has been suggested as a biomarker of nitrosative stress as it can lead to either activation or inhibition of target proteins. The exact molecular mechanism(s) by which exogenous and endogenously generated NO (or reactive nitrogen species) modulate the induction of various genes affecting redox homeostasis, are being extensively investigated currently by various research groups. Present review provides an in-depth analysis of the mechanisms by which NO interacts with and modulates the activity of various ROS scavenging enzymes, particularly accompanying ROS generation in plants in response to varied abiotic stress.

Understanding the physiological and biochemical basis of abiotic stress tolerance in plants has always been one of the major aspects of research aiming to enhance plant productivity in arid and semi-arid cultivated lands all over the world. Growth of stress-tolerant transgenic crops and associated agricultural benefits through increased productivity, and related ethical issues, are also the major concerns of current research in various laboratories. Interesting data on the regulation of abiotic stress tolerance in plants by serotonin and melatonin has accumulated in the recent past. These two indoleamines possess antioxidative and growth-inducing properties, thus proving beneficial for stress acclimatization. Present review shall focus on the modes of serotonin and melatonin-induced regulation of abiotic stress tolerance in plants. Complex molecular interactions of serotonin and auxin-responsive genes have suggested their antagonistic nature. Data from genomic and metabolomic analyses of melatonin-induced abiotic stress signaling have lead to an understanding of the regulation of stress tolerance through the modulation of transcription factors, enzymes and various signaling molecules. Melatonin, nitric oxide (NO) and calmodulin interactions have provided new avenues for research on the molecular aspects of stress physiology in plants. Investigations on the characterization of receptors associated with serotonin and melatonin responses, are yet to be undertaken in plants. Patenting of biotechnological inventions pertaining to serotonin and melatonin formulations (through soil application or foliar spray) are expected to be some of the possible ways to regulate abiotic stress tolerance in plants. The present review, thus, summarizes the regulatory roles of serotonin and melatonin in modulating the signaling events accompanying abiotic stress in plants.