Field experiments were conducted on a four-year-old leaf-use ginkgo plantation in southern China to assess the impact of nine different fertilization strategies with varying N-P₂O₅-K₂O rates at three growth phases (FBD: March for bud development; FLG: May for leaf growth; FLS: July for leaf strengthening) on leaf-use ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba L.) leaf productivity and ecological economic benefits (EEBs). The results indicated that regardless of timing and rate, fertilizer application led to an increase in leaf area and thickness, resulting in higher ginkgo leaf yield. The highest fresh (215.14 g tree⁻¹) and dry (78.83 g tree⁻¹) yields were observed with 3 g N + 2.5 g P₂O₅ + 1.5 g K₂O tree⁻¹ in FLG. FLS was found to mitigate the decline in SPAD values of leaves during late summer. Furthermore, fertilized ginkgo trees exhibited higher flavonoid concentrations in leaves, enhancing profitability. However, higher fertilizer rates were associated with elevated greenhouse gas emissions, nitrogen losses and ecological costs. Despite these drawbacks, all fertilization treatments resulted in increased net economic income. Specifically, compared to no fertilization, FBD, FLG and FLS treatments boosted net income by 3.5~26.6%, 11.6~60.5% and 5.8~35.4%, respectively. Using the entropy weight TOPSIS method, it was concluded that optimizing the N, P and K fertilization rate and timing (applying 3–2.5–1.5 g tree⁻¹ of N-P₂O₅-K₂O in May) is a beneficial approach to maximize EEBs and industrial benefits in leaf-use ginkgo plantations in southern China. This study provides valuable insights into suitable fertilization patterns and management for leaf-use ginkgo plantations in southern China.

Co-application of sewage sludge (SS) with biochar in landscape/forestry soil is a common strategy for enhancing soil fertility and reducing the bioavailability of potential toxic elements (PTEs) derived from SS, such as Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, and Ni. However, due to variability of biochar quality and uncertainties in responses of different plant species, whether the co-application benefits the landscape/forestry plant system remains elusive. Here, we tested the effectiveness of three types of biochar (SS-derived biochar (SB), rice straw-derived biochar (RB), and litter-derived biochar (LB)), which were added to soil amended with SS at 50% (w/w) at rates of 1.5%, 3%, and 4.5% as growth media for the landscape plant Aglaonema modestum (A. modestum). We analyzed the substrate’s physicochemical properties and assessed the alleviation of phytotoxicity by biochar application. A significant increase in the fertility index of substrate was observed in all the treatments with biochar addition. The addition of biochar reduced the potential mobility of PTEs while increasing their residual fraction in media. Nonetheless, it has been found that the addition of biochar has ineffective or even negative effects on A. modestum growth (height, biomass, root length) and nutrient absorption. Importantly, the reduction in root biomass and the increased activity of root antioxidant enzymes (SOD, POD, CAT, and MDA) indicate contamination stress of biochar on the roots of A. modestum. Toxic elements of concern—namely Cu, Cd, and Pb—were not significantly higher in tissues of A. modestum saplings planted in biochar-SS-amended soil. However, elevated levels of other elements that may pose toxicity concerns, such as Ni and Zn, increased in tissues at high biochar dosages. Based on the Entropy–Weight TOPSIS method, it was further confirmed that compared to the treatment without biochar, all treatments except for 3.0% LB application resulted in poorer A. modestum comprehensive growth. Our results emphasize the need for detailed research on the response of specific plants to biochar in specific environments, including plant adaptability and the unexplored toxicity of biochar, to understand the large variations and mechanisms behind these ineffective or negative effects before the large-scale co-utilization of SS and biochar in landscape/forestry soils.