The nature of the global signal, i.e. the average signal from sequential functional imaging scans of the brain or the cortex, is not well understood, but is thought to include vascular and neural components. Using resting state data, we report on the strong association between the global signal and the average signal from the part of the volume that includes the cranial bone and subdural vessels and venous collectors, separated from each other and the subdural space by multispectral segmentation procedures. While subdural vessels carried a signal with a phase delay relative to the cortex, the association with the cortical signal was strongest in the parts of the scan corresponding to the laminae of the cranial bone, reaching 80% shared variance in some individuals. These findings suggest that in resting state data vascular components may play a prominent role in the genesis of fluctuations of the global signal. Evidence from other studies on the existence of neural sources of the global signal suggests that it may reflect the action of multiple mechanisms (including cerebrovascular reactivity and autonomic control) concurrently acting to regulate global cerebral perfusion.

Evidence of detour ability to reach a salient goal in marine fishes (Chromis viridis, Chrysiptera parasema, Dascyllus aruanus) and freshwater fishes (Xenotoca eiseni, Danio rerio) has been observed using a “four-compartment box task” with an opaque barrier. The first experiment investigated this ability in marine fishes (Chromis viridis, Chrysiptera parasema, Dascyllus aruanus). Fish were placed in a four-compartment box, with social stimuli not accessible due to an opaque barrier. Two symmetrical apertures midline in the corridor allowed the fish to temporarily abandon the goal’s view and attempt to circumvent the barrier. Marine fish showed searching behavior in the two compartments near the social stimuli. In the second experiment, the detour abilities of a marine fish (Dascyllus aruanus) and two freshwater fishes (Xenotoca eiseni, Danio rerio) were compared using a modified version of the apparatus, with elongated compartments continuing further from the obstacle barrier and social stimuli. This enabled the evaluation of the dependence on effective distance to achieve the social goal. Both marine and freshwater fish exhibited detour skills. Additionally, Danio rerio’s differential spatial explorations inside compartments supported an active interest in searching for conspecifics, suggesting possible social object permanence retention. Overall, these results highlight the ecological salience of detour skills in fishes, irrespective of species-specific adaptations.

Neuroimaging studies have identified the neural substrates associated with sustained cognitive efforts and control and their modulation by rewards. Different lines of evidence implicate the prefrontal cortex (especially the anterior cingulate cortex, ACC), dopaminergic, and cholinergic substrates in this modulation. We studied here the activity of these substrates at increasing time on task (requiring increasing levels of cognitive effort) in trials within blocks with differing reward levels. In the cortex, while peaking in the ACC, activity associated with time on task was extensive, also including activity decrements outside the default mode network, primarily involving motor and somatosensory regions. Information about reward levels was carried in the ventral striatum, consistent with its motivational role, but did not reflect trade-offs with increasing efforts during time on task. Instead, the ventral tegmental area and parts of the basal forebrain (BF) corresponding to the cholinergic Ch4 nuclei increased in activity with time on task and were sensitive to reward levels. This BF activity is consistent with a cholinergic role in driving compensatory efforts modulated by reward levels. These findings identify the BF as a neuroimaging phenotype associated with sustaining task sets and cognitive efforts.

Despite the kraepelinian differentiation of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, several data questioned this net subdivision and suggested a continuity between the two. An expanded continuum hypothesis was suggested, assuming a common psychotic core between the two disorders, as well as cognitive and affective differences. The present study aimed to investigate similarities and differences between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder for what entails the affective dimension of the continuum. A coordinate-based meta-analytic approach on neuroimaging data was applied to understand differences and similarities in the visual perception of negative stimuli in the two groups. The activation likelihood estimation analysis included 41 experiments on schizophrenia (schizophrenia versus healthy controls) and 27 experiments on bipolar disorder (bipolar versus healthy controls). Our conjunction analysis results revealed the presence of shared functional abnormalities in thalamic, parahippocampal, and basal ganglia areas, suggesting that these patients share an altered circuit responsible for a heightened elaboration of negative emotional stimuli. The subtraction analysis highlighted that the two groups present differences too. Schizophrenia patients show widespread abnormalities in limbic, temporal, sub-lobar and midbrain regions possibly involved in emotional processing and hallucinations. On the other hand, bipolar patients show alterations in frontal areas associated with emotional appraisal, regulation, and response inhibition. This study sheds light on both similarities and differences in the emotional processing of schizophrenic and bipolar patients, and may help to better characterise the affective features of these two conditions along a continuum.

Self-regulation is a human trait consistently associated with success in both academic and professional settings and to better mental health. Based on previous findings, we used functional imaging data in a sustained attention task to test three hypotheses on neural substrates associated with individual differences in self-regulation. The first linked higher self-regulation and cognitive control, predicting modulation of recruitment of prefrontal substrates. The second, originating in the animal literature, suggests increased recruitment of cholinergic substrates in the basal forebrain. The third predicted higher modulation of reward-sensitive regions in the brainstem in less regulated individuals for differences in reward levels during the task. The second hypothesis was confirmed by our study, which also provided suggestive evidence for the third hypothesis. Our data suggest that one mechanism of higher self-regulation in humans may ensue from greater activity in the cholinergic system to sustain attention during a cognitively simple task.

Self-regulation is a human trait consistently associated with success in both academic and professional settings and with better mental health. Based on previous findings, we used functional imaging data in a sustained attention task to test three hypotheses on neural substrates associated with individual differences in self-regulation. The first linked higher self-regulation and cognitive control, predicting modulation of recruitment of prefrontal substrates. The second, originating in the animal literature, suggests increased recruitment of cholinergic substrates in the basal forebrain. The third predicted higher modulation of reward-sensitive regions in the brainstem in less regulated individuals for differences in reward levels during the task. The second hypothesis was confirmed by our study, which also provided suggestive evidence for the third hypothesis. Our data suggest that one mechanism of higher self-regulation in humans may ensue from greater activity in the cholinergic system to sustain attention during a cognitively simple task.