The city of Armenia, Colombia has been repeatedly subjected to moderate magnitude earthquakes. Damage in that city for the 1999 (Mw6.2) event was disproportionate (maximum observed EMS-92 intensity of IX), even considering the small epicentral distance (18 km). Two main factors have been invoked: Site effects and vulnerability of the building stock. We re-analyze available data on site effects, including: Records of aftershocks of the 1999 event, ambient noise records obtained using standalone stations, array records of ambient noise, and available shear wave profiles from seismic cone measurements. We estimate local amplification from spectral ratios of earthquake records relative to a reference site, the horizontal relative to the vertical component (HVSR, Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratios) of earthquakes and ambient noise records, and ratios of response spectra relative to a reference site or to simulated ground motion. These estimates are compared to amplification functions computed for 1D soil models, inverted from microtremor array observations. Our estimates of site effects for Armenia are therefore robust and bring together results previously available only in internal reports. We show that spectral ratios relative to a reference site may fail to estimate the amplification level. Site effects in Armenia are relatively homogeneous. Although site amplification is very significant and contributed to the observed damage, it does not account for the irregular damage distribution observed in 1999.

An important object of study in geotechnical engineering is the interface between structures and soil. It is through this interface that earthquakes affect man-made structures. Thus, geotechnical engineering lies at the interface between seismology and structural dynamics. Ideally, experts from both fields should work together to estimate the maximum seismic demand that may affect a structure during its lifetime. This assessment must take into consideration site effects (the amplification of seismic waves due to the surface geology conditions at the site of interest). The estimation of site effects would be improved if the data used to design the foundation of the structure were considered. On the other side, geotechnical design would be enhanced if the uncertainties and limitations that affect site effect estimation were considered. The necessary feedback between seismology and engineering requires fostering the communication between disciplines and a better understanding of the way in which similar problems are attacked by our colleagues of the complementary discipline. This work aims to contribute to that exchange. The state of the practice of site effect estimation in seismology is presented. We address commonly used techniques used to assess site effects due to soft soil deposits from seismic records or ambient noise. In addition, 3-D simulations of site effects are discussed. The application of these methods is described using the small sedimentary basin of Parkway (New Zealand) as our example. Our main objective is to discuss the limitations and uncertainties associated to site effect estimation and their impact on the reliability of the structures we build. We hope to stimulate increased exchanges between seismology and geotechnical engineering.