With the Clean Energy for all Europeans legislative package, the European Union (EU) aimed to put consumers “at the heart” of EU energy policy. The recast of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II) acknowledged the importance of energy communities for the energy transition and introduced new provisions for renewable energy communities (RECs), empowering them to participate in the energy market. This article analyses the progress of transposing and implementing key provisions of the RED II that apply to RECs in nine European countries and focuses on timeliness and completeness of transposition. It comprises both a qualitative and quantitative assessment covering (1) the definition, rights, and market activities of RECs; (2) key elements of enabling frameworks; and (3) consideration of REC specificities in support schemes for renewable energy. The analysis shows considerable variation in transposition performance between the analysed countries. The authors investigate the reasons for this variation and relate them to findings of European implementation and compliance research. Key factors identified include actor-related and capacity-related factors, institutional fit, and characteristics of the RED II itself. Future research in this field needs multi-faceted avenues and should pay particular attention to the influence of national governments and incumbents, not only in the transposition process, but already in upstream policy formulation at the European level.

The governance of energy systems is undergoing a transformative shift, vital to advancing the energy transition. Understanding the dynamics of energy citizenship and the factors that influence citizen engagement in energy matters is critical for driving social and institutional change. This paper informs on the key results of a comprehensive analysis of 54 energy citizenship cases in the Baltic states (Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania). The study explores the role of citizens in the energy transition and characterizes the socio-economic and geopolitical factors shaping energy citizenship activities in the region. The governance of energy systems represents a significant transformational shift that is essential for energy transition. A more comprehensive understanding of the current state of energy citizenship and the factors influencing the energy transition process could inform the social and institutional changes necessary for the involvement of citizens in energy matters. This desk study represents a crucial element of the EU Horizon 2000 EnergyPROSPECTS project, which aims to map the landscape of energy citizenship in Europe. This paper presents an in-depth analysis of 54 cases from the Baltic states. The findings provide insight into the role of citizens in the transition process and the underlying factors and conditions that shape energy citizenship activities within the specific socio-economic and geopolitical context of the region. In general, energy citizenship in the Baltic states can be seen to exist on a spectrum between reformative and transformative practices. Overall, progress is being made toward systemic changes in the energy sector, with a focus on the democratization of processes. Nevertheless, additional measures to enhance and reinforce energy citizenship, coupled with the advancement of enabling conditions, are imperative at all levels of governance and across all energy transition scenarios.

Studies being presented here have been done as initial part of wider research-and-developemnt (R&D) programme, aiming to investigate preconditions and all instruments set necessary for environmental governance adequate integration into legally required societal (sustainable) development governance/planning framework and municipal governance practice. This have been done studying governance by its triple complementary dimensions of governance content, governance process and governance stakeholders and approaching municipality as a complex and interactive socio-ecological system. Accordingly, pilot investigations have been done as various thematical case studies in preselected model municipalities – six studies/pilot studies, based on the integrated case study research methodology, including and complementary applying document studies, interviews, surveys, observations and focus groups. Existing development planning and other instruments combined with municipal planning capacities are neither sufficient nor effective, and, since step-wise developmental process for sustainability principle integration seems to be not perspective as quite similar also with integration principle as for complex planning process and also as for thematical meaning of integrations of environmental governance into develoment one. Since environmental sector planning documents are not mandatory anymore at local municipalities, environmental sector planning process and content in the development planning practice is often limited, but few ad hoc available and used formal environmental planning instruments are neither sufficient or used just temporaly. There is to be seen necessity to develop innovative methodologies and tools as done during this research-and-development project.

This chapter explores the hindering and supporting factors in the development of energy citizenship in Latvia. This contribution identifies key threats arising from the complex economic landscape shaped by geopolitical dynamics and escalating energy costs, as well as the level of political commitment in the field of climate policy and renewable energy. The chapter identifies a lack of confidence in public institutions and collective efforts as one of the critical obstacles to broader engagement with energy citizenship initiatives. The chapter also highlights several factors that contribute to the development of a framework energy citizenship. These include robust financing and investment prospects in this field, initiated by the EU and national level support schemes; the pivotal role of decarbonisation technologies and renewable energy sources, particularly household solar installations as well as Latvia's natural resources, encompassing residual forestry materials and solid biomass. National policy recommendations are included to conclude this chapter. Overall, this contribution broadens the understandings of energy citizenship development in Latvia, paving the way for future potential policy decisions and strategic interventions.

Mājsaimniecību Ietekme uz Klimatu Latvijā: Oglekļa Pēdas Rādītājs: People more and more recognize climate change as one of the main environmental problems and the term ‘carbon footprint’ (CF) has become popular and is now in widespread use. In this paper, the CF concept has been applied to analyse average per capita household Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions in Latvia. We explore household CF in housing (heating and electricity consumption), transport, food and goods and service sectors, which are the main household environmental pressure areas. This paper provides an understanding of both direct and indirect (embodied) GHG emissions. Results from the study suggest that the average Latvian exceeds its global fair share of GHG emissions - the average per capita GHG in 2006 was 4.35 t CO2e. The highest household emissions arise from housing (37%), mobility (26%) and food consumption (25%), goods and services together account only for 12% of total household GHG emissions. This study, however, does not cover capital investments in infrastructure (roads, public buildings etc.) which could increase total emission by almost a ton. The study emphasizes that attention must be paid to the lifestyles, infrastructure and institutions that result in considerable amounts of carbon being locked up in the household activities through which people meet their everyday needs. The findings also indicate that policies should be targeted at the segments in society responsible for the highest carbon footprints, ie. housing, food and mobility.