Insights into induction of the immune response by the hepatitis B vaccine

During the first few months of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) evolution in a new host, contrasting hypotheses have been proposed about the way the virus has evolved and diversified worldwide. The aim of this study was to perform a comprehensive evolutionary analysis to describe the human outbreak and the evolutionary rate of different genomic regions of SARS‐CoV‐2. The molecular evolution in nine genomic regions of SARS‐CoV‐2 was analyzed using three different approaches: phylogenetic signal assessment, emergence of amino acid substitutions, and Bayesian evolutionary rate estimation in eight successive fortnights since the virus emergence. All observed phylogenetic signals were very low and tree topologies were in agreement with those signals. However, after 4 months of evolution, it was possible to identify regions revealing an incipient viral lineage formation, despite the low phylogenetic signal since fortnight 3. Finally, the SARS‐CoV‐2 evolutionary rate for regions nsp3 and S, the ones presenting greater variability, was estimated as 1.37 × 10⁻³ and 2.19 × 10⁻³ substitution/site/year, respectively. In conclusion, results from this study about the variable diversity of crucial viral regions and determination of the evolutionary rate are consequently decisive to understand essential features of viral emergence. In turn, findings may allow the first‐time characterization of the evolutionary rate of S protein, crucial for vaccine development.

The spike protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) has become the main target for antiviral and vaccine development. Despite its relevance, e information is scarse about its evolutionary traces. The aim of this study was to investigate the diversification patterns of the spike for each clade of SARS‐CoV‐2 through different approaches. Two thousand and one hundred sequences representing the seven clades of the SARS‐CoV‐2 were included. Patterns of genetic diversifications and nucleotide evolutionary rate were estimated for the spike genomic region. The haplotype networks showed a star shape, where multiple haplotypes with few nucleotide differences diverge from a common ancestor. Four hundred seventy‐nine different haplotypes were defined in the seven analyzed clades. The main haplotype, named Hap‐1, was the most frequent for clades G (54%), GH (54%), and GR (56%) and a different haplotype (named Hap‐252) was the most important for clades L (63.3%), O (39.7%), S (51.7%), and V (70%). The evolutionary rate for the spike protein was estimated as 1.08 × 10⁻³ nucleotide substitutions/site/year. Moreover, the nucleotide evolutionary rate after nine months of the pandemic was similar for each clade. In conclusion, the present evolutionary analysis is relevant as the spike protein of SARS‐CoV‐2 is the target for most therapeutic candidates; besides, changes in this protein could have consequences on viral transmission, response to antivirals and efficacy of vaccines. Moreover, the evolutionary characterization of clades improves knowledge of SARS‐CoV‐2 and deserves to be assessed in more detail as re‐infection by different phylogenetic clades has been reported.