Marine biodiversity plays a vital role in ecosystem resilience and stability against climate change and alien species invasions, among others. This also plays a role in the provision of ecosystem services and functions that benefits humans. However due to anthropogenic activities and population increase, marine biodiversity have been affected most. We conducted a review using open-sourced journals on the effects of nutrient enrichment, sedimentation, heavy metals and plastic pollution in the marine environment and its implications on marine biodiversity. Lethal and sub-lethal effects were observed in different organisms that could affect marine biodiversity directly or indirectly. Direct effects include mortality of organisms while indirect effects include habitat degradation or alteration, a simplified food web, increase alien species invasion and reduced fitness of organisms. Human land use change, coastal construction activities, untreated sewage discharges, pesticides, mine tailings, uncollected, unsegregated and improperly dumped garbages and unabated garbage dumping at sea have been found to negatively influence marine biodiversity. In the Philippines, very few studies have been conducted with regards to marine pollution, especially on marine plastic debris, and even fewer studies have been made that tackles the effect of these stressors at an ecosystem level. Furthermore, this review has identified direct and indirect effects of pollution stressors on marine organisms which include: mortality and reduced fitness, vulnerability to disease or sickness,-habitat degradation, and food web simplification. Keywords - Ecology, nutrient enrichment, sedimentation, plastic, biodiversity, literature review, pollution, Philippines

Mangrove ecosystems are very important because of its many ecological and economic functions. It provides food, shelter, and protection to a myriad of organisms and maintains connectivity with other coastal ecosystems. It holds diverse forms of both floral and faunal associations, which are used by humans for different purposes. This review discusses the physiognomy, ethnobiology, composition of mangrove ecosystems with emphasis on associated fauna and mangrove crabs, fish production, and the human threats that can alter the stability of mangrove ecosystems. Different journal articles, books, manuals, and other online sources from both local and international sources were used to discuss the review. Mangrove ecosystems were found to be occurring in tropical and subtropical areas and are distributed horizontally in estuarine and vertically in intertidal zones due to a number of environmental and biotic factors. The ecosystem is composed of diverse associations of communities of both floral and faunal groups. Many of these associated fauna are benthic macroinvertebrates and fishes, a number of which are sourced as fish products. Fisheries are the topmost economic use of mangrove ecosystems. Fish products harvested include mud crabs, shrimps, mollusks, and fishes. The continued growth of human population and the industrialization of fishing exceeded our sustainable use of waters leading to the declining fish landings. Such event gave rise to aquaculture, which has become the main cause of diminishing mangrove ecosystems. Other human threats to mangrove ecosystems include mining, overexploitation for economic services, and urban development. Along with mangrove decline is the ecosystem’s susceptibility to climate change particularly on the rising sea level. This indicates a higher risk to flooding, tsunamis, cyclones, and storm surges. Hence, protection, conservation, rehabilitation and restoration of mangrove ecosystems, and its sustainable use are essential. Eco-friendly aquaculture must also be implemented. Keywords - Mangrove, fauna, flora, mud crab, aquaculture, fisheries, literature review, Philippines

The current study evaluates the nutritional and feed value of mysid meal (MM) as a substitute for fishmeal (FM) in the Pacific white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) postlarvae diet. Five experimental diets were formulated by replacing 0 (MM0), 25 (MM25), 50 (MM50), 75 (MM75), and 100 % (MM100) of dietary FM with MM. These experimental feeds were fed to P. vannamei postlarvae in a 60-day feeding trial. Results revealed that MM could entirely substitute 100 % FM in the white shrimp diet. Furthermore, results showed that 75 % FM replacement with MM elicited a growth-enhancing effect and improved feed nutrient utilization. No significant treatment effects were detected in the survival, total feed intake, and biochemical body composition of P. vannamei. The observed improvement in shrimp growth in terms of weight gain (WG), specific growth rate (SGR), and nutrient retention were positively correlated with the substitution level of FM by MM. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was negatively correlated with the substitution of MM and with the growth indices including WG and SGR. In conclusion, 100% of the FM (40% in the control diet) can be substituted by dietary MM without affecting the survival, growth, feed utilization, and biochemical carcass composition of P. vannamei. Polynomial regression analysis of SGR indicates that 65.50% of MM is optimum to replace FM in the diet of P. vannamei to attain maximum growth.

This study aimed to find alternative feeds or supplementary feeds that can perform similarly to the existing commercial feeds thereby reducing farmer expense and cutting down their cost of production and increasing their profitability on Milkfish ( Chanos chanos Forsskål, 1775) aquaculture. The formulations for the study included four grow-out treatments mainly: control (commercial feed), taro+control (powdered Colocasia esculenta +commercial fish feed), bloodmeal (formulated fish feed based on bloodmeal), banana stem+control (chopped banana stem+commercial fish feed). The result of the study showed no significant differences between feed treatments from the 6 ^th week onwards, whether with weight (MS=0.130, df=3, F =1.14, p =0.333) or total length of the treatments (MS=0.008, df=3, F =0.40, p =0.75). The FCR ratio showed bloodmeal (1.60) as the lowest, followed by the control (1.65), and taro+commercial (1.71), and then banana stem+commercial (2.18). In terms of weight gain, fish from the bloodmeal treatment gained the highest (236.97 g), followed by control (223.33 g), then taro (217.67 g), and banana stem (196.99 g). As a result, we find that any of the tested treatments can serve as an alternative feed to using purely commercial fish feeds. Cost-benefit analysis showed that a better gross profit margin of 42% and cost-benefit ratio of 1.37 was observed in taro+commercial feed diet. The experiment showed that the taro, Blood meal, and banana stem can be used as an alternative feed component for sustainable milkfish farming.

This study aimed to assess the feasibility of utilizing indigenous feed ingredients for milkfish ( Chanos chanos Forsskål 1775) aquaculture. Nine different feed treatments were tested: taro, golden apple snail, azolla plant, blood meal, cacao pod, banana stem, copra meal, soybean meal, and a control. We used 15 juvenile milkfish (initial weights=6.4-7.4 g; initial lengths=5.3-5.7 cm) cultured in 80 L tanks and replicated three times to assess their growth and feed utilization. After 60 days of culture, copra meal and Azolla attained 23.0 g and 21.8 g, which were higher compared to the other treatments. This was followed by taro (18.9 g), bloodmeal (18.4 g), golden apple snail (18.2 g), control (18.2 g), cacao pod (18.2 g), soybean treatments (17.5 g), and lastly banana stem (16.1 g). Comparison of the initial length and weight of the treatments versus their final values during the 60 days of culture showed differences (length: t =20.0, p =0.0001, df =16; weight: t =16.5, p =0.0001, df =16) but none between the nine treatments ( p >0.05). In terms of average daily weight gain, copra meal gained faster (0.34 g), followed by Azolla (0.24 g), and then the control (0.22 g) and bloodmeal (0.19 g) with banana stem the last (0.15 g). While in terms of feed conversion ratio (FCR), copra meal (1.1), azolla (1.3), taro (1.5) and the control (1.5) had the lowest FCR values; banana stem (1.9) and soybean meal treatments (2.0) had the highest. Fulton’s condition factor showed that these four treatments (taro=1; Azolla=1.2; copra meal=1.2; control=1.2) were closest to 1, signifying a healthy condition. The gonadosomatic index (GSI=0.005) and hepatosomatic index (HSI=0.03) values were consistent in the various treatments, showing no adverse effects suffered during the period of culture. The alternative feeds can be used in milkfish aquaculture to reduce the cost of operation.