The underlying mechanisms of probiotics and postbiotics are not well understood, but it is known that both affect the adaptive and innate immune responses. In addition, there is a growing concept that some probiotic strains have common core mechanisms that provide certain health benefits. Here, we aimed to elucidate the signalization of the probiotic bacterial strains Lactobacillus paragasseri K7, Limosilactobacillus fermentum L930BB, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. animalis IM386 and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum WCFS1. We showed in in vitro experiments that the tested probiotics exhibit common TLR2‐ and TLR10‐dependent downstream signalling cascades involving inhibition of NF‐κB signal transduction. Under inflammatory conditions, the probiotics activated phosphatidylinositol 3‐kinase (PI3K)/Akt anti‐apoptotic pathways and protein kinase C (PKC)‐dependent pathways, which led to regulation of the actin cytoskeleton and tight junctions. These pathways contribute to the regeneration of the intestinal epithelium and modulation of the mucosal immune system, which, together with the inhibition of canonical TLR signalling, promote general immune tolerance. With this study we identified shared probiotic mechanisms and were the first to pinpoint the role of anti‐inflammatory probiotic signalling through TLR10.

The adequate survival of probiotics in the harsh environment of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract plays a crucial role in the expression of their functional properties. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the survival of commercial probiotics during digestion using a standardised INFOGEST 2.0 model extended with three food matrices simulating three scenarios for the consumption of probiotics: on an empty stomach, with juice, or with food (porridge). All eight products matched the bacterial content stated on the label. After simulated digestion, we observed an average decrease in viability of 1.6 log10 colony forming units (CFU) when the product was co-digested with water, a 2.5 log10 CFU decrease in the presence of juice, and a 1.2 log10 CFU decrease in the presence of porridge. The survival rate of the probiotics was statistically higher in the test samples with porridge (91.8%) than in those with juice (79.0%). For two products, the number of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria strains after digestion was less than <3 × 10⁵ CFU, which can be considered insufficient. The present study has shown that the survival of probiotic strains during GI passage depends not only on their ability to withstand these harsh conditions but may also be influenced by the manufacturing process and by the foods consumed together with the probiotics.

The aim of this study was to characterize the properties of lactoferrin (LF) obtained in a process developed for its isolation from acid whey derived from the production of fresh curd cheese, using a unique technology of ion-exchange chromatography on CIM^® monolithic columns. The freeze-dried lactoferrin samples produced on the pilot plant (capacity 1 m³) were examined for the purity, iron-binding capacity, antibacterial activity, and pH- and temperature-stability. Apo-LF inhibited several tested strains (enterobacteria, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus salivarius) except clostridia, lactic acid bacteria, and bifidobacteria. Sample of LF intentionally saturated with Fe³⁺ lost its antibacterial activity, indicating the involvement of mechanisms based on depriving bacteria of an iron source. All samples, regardless of the iron-saturation level, exhibited stability in pH range 4.0 to 11.0. LF with higher iron content (A-value = 41.9%) showed better thermal stability. Heat treatment up to 72 °C/3 s did not reduce antimicrobial activity against E. coli O157: H7 tox-. Higher purity (above 91%), higher iron-binding capacity and higher inhibitory activity against E. coli O157: H7 tox- compared to some similar products from the market was observed. These results demonstrate a high potential of monolithic ion-exchange chromatography for industrial processing of acid whey as a source of LF that can be used in new products with high-added value. The upscaling of the process is ongoing on a demonstration plant (10–30 m³/day capacity).

The manipulation of intestinal microbiota with beneficial microbes represents a promising alternative or adjunct therapy in gastrointestinal disorders and inflammation. The current study aims to clarify the signalling pathways and evaluate the possible beneficial effects of the combination of two strains. We used a dextran sulphate sodium (DSS)-induced mouse model of colitis. RNA extracted from the middle part of the colon tissue was used for examination of the global gene expression with Affymetrix microarrays. An enrichment analysis of the KEGG pathways was performed, and a subset of genes associated with intestinal epithelial barrier function was verified with qPCR. A clinical condition assessment of the differently treated mice revealed that the combination of these two bacterial strains was safe for use as a dietary supplement. All animals treated with DSS had affected colons and suffered weight loss. There were very small differences between the diseased groups, although the depth of inflammation was lower when cyclosporine A or the strain mixture was used. We discovered that the prophylactic administration of the Lactobacillus fermentum L930BB (L930BB) and Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. animalis IM386 (IM386) strains led to an anti-apoptotic pathway through phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt and to the activation of pathways involved in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton via protein kinase C and GTPases. Reorganisation of actin cytoskeleton and decreased apoptosis are both helpful in intestinal epithelial cell reconstitution. We confirm important previous observations, showing that these pathways are downstream targets of Toll-like receptor 2 and fibroblast growth factor initiated signalling. Taken together, these results suggest that the combination of L930BB and IM386 could aid in the regeneration of the intestinal epithelium during pathogenesis via pattern recognition receptors and the stimulation of growth factor synthesis.

Fermented foods are consumed worldwide and are increasingly being studied for their potential health benefits. Although their consumption is widespread, their association with long-term health outcomes such as mortality risk remains unclear. The aim of this systematic review was to assess the association between the consumption of fermented foods and risk of all-cause, cardiovascular, and cancer-related mortality in generally healthy adult populations in accordance with the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) framework for the substantiation of health claims. A comprehensive literature search identified prospective cohort studies from 1970 to 2025 that investigated the association between fermented food consumption and mortality outcomes. Risk of bias was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale, and strength of evidence was evaluated based on study quality, sample size, and precision within a structured narrative framework that also classified the direction of association across categories. A complementary non-systematic review examined the compositional characteristics, mechanisms of action, and potential health risks associated with fermented foods. Fifty-two cohort studies were included. Fermented milk products (including yogurt), chocolate, and fermented soy products (particularly natto) suggested a modest inverse association with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Cheese was associated with reduced all-cause mortality in some studies, but it showed inconsistent effect on cardiovascular mortality. The evidence for cancer-related mortality was weaker, although yogurt and fermented milk displayed some protective trends. Evidence from a single cohort suggested a potential reduction in all-cause mortality with fermented vegetable consumption, whereas fermented meat suggested no clear association with mortality. Biological plausibility was supported by fermentation-derived compounds such as bioactive peptides, polyphenols, isoflavones, natto-kinase, and vitamin K2. Habitual consumption of certain fermented foods may be associated with modest reductions in mortality risk, but the current evidence remains insufficient to support EFSA-approved health claims. Randomized controlled trials are essential to demonstrate causality. While long-term trials with mortality endpoints are not feasible, studies targeting intermediate outcomes linked to mortality offer a practical alternative. These should be complemented by observational studies to capture long-term, real-world associations. Together, such efforts support the objectives of the COST Action PIMENTO (CA20128) in building a more robust evidence base on fermented foods and health. Systematic review registration: The protocol for this systematic review was registered with the Open Science Framework (OSF; registration ID: vg7f6; https://osf.io/vg7f6 ).

Purpose: Fermented foods are widely consumed, contribute important bioactive compounds and microbial metabolites to the diet, and play an important role in global nutrition. This meta-analysis evaluated evidence from prospective cohort studies on the association between fermented food and non-alcoholic beverage consumption and the risk of all-cause and cause-specific mortality in healthy adults. Methods: A systematic search of three databases identified 50 cohort studies, including more than three million participants, examining associations between fermented food intake and all-cause, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and cancer mortality. Risk of bias was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Random-effects meta-analyses using the DerSimonian and Laird method, were conducted on fully adjusted risk estimates comparing highest vs. lowest intake categories. Results: Higher consumption of chocolate, cheese, and fermented milks (including yogurt) was associated with lower all-cause and CVD mortality. Fermented milk consumption also showed a protective association with cancer mortality. Miso and bread consumption showed no significant associations with mortality. Conclusion: This is the first meta-analysis to comprehensively evaluate the association between fermented food intake and mortality. Findings support a protective role for specific fermented foods consumption, i.e., milks, cheese, and chocolate, against all-cause and CVD mortality, with additional evidence of a protective effect of fermented milk on overall cancer mortality. These associations may underline the role of bioactive peptides, polyphenols, and microbial metabolites that modulate the gut microbiota, improve vascular function, and reduce the risk of certain chronic diseases. Systematic review registration: https://osf.io/vg7f6 , identifier: vg7f6.