This study was aimed at investigating the removal of antiretroviral (ARV) drug residues of emtricitabine (FTC), lamivudine (LVD) and Tenofovir (TFV) from water using the UV–Vis/TiO₂/H₂O₂ hybrid system. Evaluations of operational factors, degradation kinetics, scavenger effects, degradation pathways, and reusability of the catalyst were the key objectives of the study. The central composite design (CCD) of the response surface methodology (RSM) was used for process optimization. Five variables (pH, pollutant concentration, TiO₂ loading, H₂O₂ dosage and time) were optimized. The removal realized was 92.56% (FTC), 91.67% (LVD) and 94.83% (TFV) respectively under optimum conditions. The degradations obeyed the pseudo-first-order model with the rate constant (k₁) of 0.10773 min⁻¹ (FTC), 0.0513 min⁻¹ (TFV,) and 0.04756 min⁻¹ (LVD). pH and H₂O₂ had a positive influence on pollutant removals up to optimum conditions. The ·OH and h ⁺ were the major contributors to pollutant degradations. The synthesized TiO₂ could be reused in four successive cycles for the effective degradation of all the ARVs. The research shows that the UV–Vis/TiO₂/H₂O₂ hybrid system may provide an alternative treatment method for the ARVs in water. Graphical Abstract

The presence of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) in the aquatic environment highlights the inadequacy of traditional wastewater treatment plants in their remediation. Moreover, the fate and associated human and ecotoxicological impact of those compounds are not well established. In fact, research focusing on effective alternative treatment solutions still seems lacking. However, a growing interest in remediation techniques for pharmaceutical residues, including ARVs in wastewater, has been noticed recently. The main objective of this review is to share updated information and literature on the recent advances in wastewater treatment strategies to eliminate traces of ARVs from wastewater. Research gaps and possible ways forward for further research in the development of effective alternative treatments are well narrated in the current review. Furthermore, useful information can be derived from the highlighted biodegradation mechanisms to better understand the environmental fate of these compounds. An overview of different treatment methods is given, with particular emphasis on the removal efficiencies, reaction kinetics, degradation mechanisms, and process limitations. A summary of the environmental occurrence of ARVs is provided, as well as the status of the global HIV prevalence and antiretroviral therapy.

The remediation of pharmaceutical drugs (PHACs) in the aqueous environment has been one of the major challenges facing the global community for decades. The risk associated with these compounds is their ubiquitous persistence in the environment, posing potential human health risks and ecotoxicological effects. The combined adsorption–photocatalysis process has proven successful in eliminating a wide range of emerging pollutants (EPs), including PHACs. The current review provides updated literature on the recent advancements in adsorption–photocatalytic removal of PHACs from wastewater using hybrid ion‐adsorbent photocatalytic systems. Process performance has been discussed. Limitations have been identified, and possible solutions are proposed to overcome or reduce them. The exemplary investigations of this review would clearly equip the research community with the updated data associated with research gaps for further research aimed at developing efficient ion‐adsorptive photocatalysts, overall process improvements, and potential scale‐up operations. This review is crucial, given that adsorption–photocatalysis has shown promising results in eliminating EPs, including PHACs in wastewater, yet practical applications remain elusive.

The photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into energy-dense fuels using visible light provides a sustainable approach for solar-to-chemical energy transformation. Among the diverse metal molecular systems developed, ruthenium (II) (Ru(II)) complexes have emerged as promising catalysts due to their superior redox properties, strong visible light absorption, and customizable ligand structures. This review explores recent advances in Ru(II)-catalyzed CO₂ photoreduction, with particular attention given to catalyst design strategies, mechanistic pathways, and system integration methodologies. Key configurations, including photosensitizer/catalyst (PS/Cat) mixed systems, covalently bonded dyads, and hybrid/supramolecular frameworks, are evaluated in terms of efficiency, turnover numbers (TON), and selectivity. A critical analysis of challenges such as competing H₂ generation, inefficient charge transfer, and limited long-term stability is presented. Emerging trends toward the use of pincer ligands, transition metal integration, and self-photosensitizing frameworks are discussed as potential approaches for improving efficiency. Overall, this review offers insights into the structural and mechanistic features driving CO₂ photoreduction and provides perspectives for the rational design of next-generation Ru-based photocatalytic systems for efficient solar CO₂ conversion and the photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into energy-dense fuels using visible light.

Moringa Oleifera (MO) seed extract was used as an antimicrobial agent and a biosorbent to remove heavy metals from acidic mineral effluents. Biosorption experiments were conducted in a thermostatic shaker using synthetic acidic mineral effluent(SAME) of composition, 20 ppm, 20 ppm, 100 ppm, and 500 ppm for Ni, Cu, Mn, and Fe, respectively. The Quanti-tray and SimPlate standard procedures were used for the antimicrobial tests. The aqueous seed extract achieved microbial reductions of 100% total coliform and 90.5% Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC). Ni and Cu were the most removed metals and optimum sorption conditions achieved were pH = 3, Temperature = 308 K, solid loading = 10% m/v, and residence time = 90 minutes. The biosorption process was endothermic for all the metals but only feasible and spontaneous for Cu and Ni. The Langmuir model and second-order kinetics best fit the adsorption process for Ni, Cu, and Fe, while ion-exchange/ chemisorption was the possible mechanism of adsorption. Overall, MO seed extract was an effective antimicrobial agent and bio-sorbent for Ni, Cu, and Fe removal in acidic mineral effluent. The use of MO in acidic medium is a novel technique.

The photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into energy-dense fuels using visible light provides a sustainable approach for solar-to-chemical energy transformation. Among the diverse metal molecular systems developed, ruthenium(II) (Ru(II)) complexes have emerged as promising catalysts due to their superior redox properties, strong visible light absorption, and customizable ligand structures. This review explores recent advances in Ru(II)-catalyzed CO₂ photoreduction, with particular attention given to catalyst design strategies, mechanistic pathways, and system integration methodologies. Key configurations, including photosensitizer/catalyst (PS/Cat) mixed systems, covalently bonded dyads, and hybrid/supramolecular frameworks, are evaluated in terms of efficiency, turnover numbers (TON), and selectivity. A critical analysis of challenges such as competing H₂ generation, inefficient charge transfer, and limited long-term stability is presented. Emerging trends toward the use of pincer ligands, transition metal integration, and self-photosensitizing frameworks are discussed as potential approaches for improving efficiency. Overall, this review offers insights into the structural and mechanistic features driving CO₂ photoreduction and provides perspectives for the rational design of next-generation Ru-based photocatalytic systems for efficient solar CO₂ conversion.