Myxomycetes (plasmodial slime molds, Amoebozoa) are often perceived as widely distributed, confounding to the “everything is everywhere” hypothesis. To test if gene flow within these spore-dispersed protists is restricted by geographical barriers, we chose the widespread but morphologically unmistakable species Hemitrichia serpula for a phylogeographic study. Partial sequences from nuclear ribosomal RNA genes (SSU) revealed 40 ribotypes among 135 specimens, belonging to three major clades. Each clade is dominated by specimens from a certain region and by one of two morphological varieties which can be differentiated by SEM micrographs. Partial sequences of the protein elongation factor 1 alpha (EF1A) showed each clade to possess a unique combination of SSU and EF1A genotypes. This pattern is best explained assuming the existence of several putative biospecies dominating in a particular geographical region. However, occasional mismatches between molecular data and morphological characters, but as well heterogeneous SSU and heterozygous EF1A sequences, point to ongoing speciation. Environmental niche models suggest that the putative biospecies are rather restricted by geographical barriers than by macroecological conditions. Like other protists, myxomycetes seem to follow the moderate endemicity hypothesis and are in active speciation, which is most likely shaped by limited gene flow and reproductive isolation.

Despite the long history of studies based on fruit body occurrence and morphology, the molecular era for myxomycetes started much later than for most other Eukaryotic groups. With the first reliable phylogenies of myxomycetes at hand, a barcoding approach is within reach. However, a serious challenge is the high diversity in marker genes known as more conservative in animals or plants. Like in other protistean groups this makes it difficult to find truly universal primers. This review reports recent advances in the development of molecular markers and assesses their suitability for barcoding the ca. 1000 described morphospecies. Most advanced is barcoding with partial sequences of the 18S rRNA gene, but the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene is as well a promising marker. Based on the limited number of studies that employed molecular methods to investigate natural populations of myxomycetes, consequences of such a barcoding approach for species concepts are discussed. Challenges for the analysis of environmental samples are addressed, which have a great potential to improve our understanding of the ecology and diversity of the group.

Aim: Lowland/highland and Neotropical/Asian Palaeotropical assemblages of myxomycetes were compared to test the null hypothesis that neither species diversity nor species composition differs between the two ecoregions. This can be expected if myxomycetes behave as ubiquists and are capable of unlimited long distance dispersal.Location: Four pairs (lowland/highland) of comprehensive regional surveys encompassingc. 7500 specimens were compared; these represented Neotropical (Yasuni/Maquipucuna in Ecuador; Guanacaste/Monteverde in Costa Rica) and Asian Palaeotropical forests (Cat Tien/Bi Dup Nui Ba in Vietnam; Chiang Mai in Thailand/South Luzon in the Philippines).Methods: Each survey was carried out in an area characterized by relatively homogenous vegetation consisting of natural or near‐natural forests, and incorporated both field collecting and the use of moist chamber cultures, and all observed fructifications were recorded. Analyses of diversity (i.e. richness) and community composition were carried out withEstimateS and R.Results: Between 400 and 2500 records per survey were obtained. Species accumulation curves indicated moderate to nearly exhaustive completeness (70–94% of expected species richness recorded). Multivariate analyses suggest that geographical separation (Neotropic versus Palaeotropic) explained the observed differences in composition of myxomycete assemblages better than habitat differences (lowland versus highland forests).Main Conclusion: Both geographically restricted morphospecies and differences in myxomycete assemblages provide evidence that myxomycetes are not ubiquists but tend to follow the moderate endemicity hypothesis of protist biogeography.

Environmental literacy helps to address key challenges in providing sustainable development for the developing third world countries. This can be qualified based on the active practice of promoting environmental awareness inside the classroom and innovative curriculum change among many educational systems. To provide a glimpse of the current situation of environmental education at the senior high school level, this pioneering qualitative research study based on grounded theory was conducted for Indonesia by interviewing 21 experienced teachers from Palembang. Two main themes were identified from the coded responses of the teachers on the semi-structured questions framed for this study. These themes were (i) teachers’ insights on the current teaching pedagogies in Indonesia and how these strategies are used to integrate environmentally important issues and (ii) the prospective of improving the environmental education in Indonesian high schools. Teachers interviewed in this study agree that (1) a more outcome-based strategy should be applied in teaching environmental knowledge in the classroom, (2) educational policies that raise awareness about environmental problems in Indonesia, especially the increasing bad air quality in the country, is seen as both a priority and an opportunity and (3) students attitudes, society’s apathy and ignorance, and government’s implementations are the challenges in developing environmental education subject for most Indonesian schools.