Background: Humans exhibit a remarkable ability to synchronize their actions with external auditory stimuli through a process called auditory–motor or rhythmic entrainment. Positive effects of rhythmic entrainment have been demonstrated in adults with neurological movement disorders, yet the neural substrates supporting the transformation of auditory input into timed rhythmic motor outputs are not fully understood. We aimed to systematically map and synthesize the research on the neural correlates of auditory–motor entrainment and synchronization. Methods: Following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines for scoping reviews, a systematic search was conducted across four databases (MEDLINE, Embase, PsycInfo, and Scopus) for articles published between 2013 and 2023. Results: From an initial return of 1430 records, 22 studies met the inclusion criteria and were synthesized based on the neuroimaging modality. There is converging evidence that auditory–motor synchronization engages bilateral cortical and subcortical networks, including the supplementary motor area, premotor cortex, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Specifically, the supplementary motor area and the basal ganglia are essential for beat-based timing and internally guided rhythmic movements, while the cerebellum plays an important role in tracking and processing complex rhythmic patterns and synchronizing to the external beat. Self-paced tapping is associated with additional activations in the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia, suggesting that tapping in the absence of auditory cues requires more neural resources. Lastly, existing studies indicate that movement rate and the type of music further modulate the EEG power in the alpha and beta frequency bands. Conclusions: These findings are discussed in the context of clinical implications and rhythm-based therapies.

The use of telehealth within music therapy practice has increased through necessity in recent years. To contribute to the evolving evidence base, this current study on Telehealth Music Therapy (TMT) was undertaken to investigate the telehealth provision experiences of music therapists internationally. Participants completed an anonymous online cross-sectional survey covering demographics, clinical practice, telehealth provision, and telehealth perceptions. Descriptive and inferential statistics, in combination with thematic analysis, were used to analyze the data. A total of 572 music therapists from 29 countries experienced in providing TMT took part in this study. The results showed that the overall number of clinical hours (TMT and in-person hours combined) declined due to the pandemic. Participants also reported reduced perceived success rates in utilizing both live and pre-recorded music in TMT sessions when compared to in-person sessions. Although many music therapists rose to the challenges posed by the pandemic by incorporating TMT delivery modes, there was no clear agreement on whether TMT has more benefits than drawbacks; however, reported benefits included increased client access and caregiver involvement. Furthermore, a correlation analysis revealed moderate-to-strong positive associations between respondents who perceived TMT to have more benefits than drawbacks, proficiency at administering assessments over telehealth, and perceived likelihood of using telehealth in the future. Regarding the influence of primary theoretical orientation and work setting, respondents who selected music psychotherapy as a primary theoretical orientation had more experience providing TMT prior to the pandemic while those primarily working in private practice were most inclined to continue TMT services post-pandemic. Benefits and drawbacks are discussed and future recommendations for TMT are provided.

Neuroscientific research on music-based activities has grown rapidly, shedding light on the health benefits of music across various domains. However, the molecular mechanisms by which music influences neuroplasticity in humans remain largely unexplored. This review aimed to synthesize and critically appraise existing research on molecular neuroplasticity in humans, with a specific focus on the effects of receptive and active music-based interventions (MBIs) and musical training. Following the PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search was conducted across four databases (MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, and Scopus), for articles published between 2000 and December 2023. From an initial return of 3239 records, 15 studies met the inclusion criteria and were synthesized into three categories of music experiences: (1) receptive MBIs, (2) active MBIs, and (3) musical training. Both active and receptive MBIs were found to enhance neuroplasticity. Specifically, music listening was associated with relaxation and improved immune function, marked by the upregulation of genes related to neuroprotection and synaptic plasticity, while active MBIs consistently enhanced peripheral neurotrophic factors in both healthy and patient populations. Among musicians, neurogenetic alterations linked to music perception and production, neurogenesis, and neurotransmission were identified, with multiple studies highlighting the roles of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), Alpha Synuclein (SNCA), and GATA2 (GATA Binding Protein 2) genes. Collectively, both MBIs and musical training induce neuroplastic changes by modulating neurogenetics, enhancing neurotrophins, altering hormonal levels, and reducing stress in humans. These findings highlight the need for further research to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying music's effects on the human brain, which could have implications for advancing therapeutic interventions for neuropsychological disorders.

Vulnerabilities in motor control and sensorimotor timing are hallmarks of developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Although the positive effects of rhythmic entrainment on motor performance have been demonstrated in adults with movement disorders, interactions between auditory and motor systems have not been well characterized in children with DCD. We employed neuropsychological tests, caregiver reports, adaptive psychophysical procedures, finger-tapping paradigms, and electroencephalography (EEG) recordings to determine whether children with DCD have auditory-perceptual difficulties, whether rhythmic auditory cues can improve their motor performance, and whether extensive musical training contributes to enhanced auditory-motor abilities. Thirty-four children aged 7–11 years participated, including children with DCD and typically developing children with and without musical training. As hypothesized, children with DCD exhibited difficulties in rhythmic timing in both auditory-perceptual and motor tasks, especially compared to typically developing children with musical training. Notably, rhythmic auditory stimuli significantly improved motor performance across groups, which was linked to increased beta power and reduced functional connectivity in the ipsilateral fronto-central network compared to unpaced movements. Moreover, children with musical training consistently outperformed their DCD and TD peers across tasks and showed greater interhemispheric connectivity during auditory-motor synchronization, suggesting that rhythmic skills can be enhanced through practice. Our findings provide compelling evidence for the use of individually tailored auditory/rhythm-based interventions in children with DCD and highlight the positive effects of music education on auditory-motor development. Given the strong association between rhythm perception and movement, future studies should continue to investigate the link between auditory and motor skills to identify the profiles of children who are most likely to benefit from such interventions.

Background/Objectives: Patterned Sensory Enhancement (PSE), a Neurologic Music Therapy technique, utilizes rhythm and other musical elements to facilitate functional movement in diverse clinical populations. This scoping review is the first to systematically synthesize the current evidence surrounding PSE’s use and its effects on motor function across various populations in order to evaluate its therapeutic potential, identify gaps in the existing literature, and guide future research efforts. Methods: A literature search was conducted across five major databases (MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and Scopus) in accordance with the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Results: From 1018 screened articles, 15 met the inclusion criteria. PSE has been demonstrated as effective across clinical populations, including Cerebral Palsy, stroke, Parkinson’s Disease, and psychiatric conditions. However, the results for studies on geriatric populations remain inconsistent. Despite the variability in the outcome measures and movement types assessed, PSE is consistently supported as an effective approach for enhancing motor function. However, to date, only a small number of studies across populations have been conducted. Conclusions: This scoping review suggests that PSE holds significant potential for improving motor function across a range of clinical populations. Further research is needed to explore the long-term effects, use standardized terminology, and identify the optimal implementation strategies tailored to the unique needs of different populations to maximize its therapeutic benefit.