This review presents the comprehensive knowledge about the bidirectional relationship between polyphenols and the gut microbiome. The first part is related to polyphenols’ impacts on various microorganisms, especially bacteria, and their influence on intestinal pathogens. The research data on the mechanisms of polyphenol action were collected together and organized. The impact of various polyphenols groups on intestinal bacteria both on the whole “microbiota” and on particular species, including probiotics, are presented. Moreover, the impact of polyphenols present in food (bound to the matrix) was compared with the purified polyphenols (such as in dietary supplements) as well as polyphenols in the form of derivatives (such as glycosides) with those in the form of aglycones. The second part of the paper discusses in detail the mechanisms (pathways) and the role of bacterial biotransformation of the most important groups of polyphenols, including the production of bioactive metabolites with a significant impact on the human organism (both positive and negative).

This review consolidates data on the most significant chemical, biological, and physical contaminants found in honey and other bee products that may have a negative impact on human health. It focuses on the various groups of compounds that affect the safety and quality of these bee products, such as pesticides, heavy metals, antibiotic residues, allergens, phytotoxins, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, mycotoxins, and microplastics. The levels of these contaminants and the related hazard risk they pose are presented in one place. The sources of these contaminants, as well as the influence of various factors (e.g., geographic region, apiary location, nectar-producing plant species and measurement method) on their concentrations, are also discussed. The levels of contaminants reported in the literature were compared with current standards and regulations to determine the actual risk to consumer health by calculating the hazard quotient. A risk assessment matrix summarising the risk arising from different groups of contaminants in specific types of apicultural products and showing the possibility of cumulative exposure is provided. Gaps in the current state of knowledge and directions for future research were also identified.