Retinal artery occlusion (RAO) is an emergency condition causing acute retinal ischemia and is considered an equivalent of ischemic stroke. The occurrence of an episode of RAO is associated with significant impairment of visual functions and correlates with an increased risk of future vascular events. Although RAO requires immediate diagnosis and treatment, there are currently no clear guidelines specifying optimal management. This review discusses current and future therapeutic strategies following an episode of RAO, including secondary prevention.

Regular training imposes repeated physiological demands that activate neuroendocrine stress regulation, with the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis playing a central role. Cortisol supports metabolic regulation and adaptation to exercise-related stress; however, prolonged exposure to high training loads combined with insufficient recovery may lead to functional alterations in HPA axis regulation, potentially affecting exercise capacity and recovery processes. This narrative review synthesizes current evidence on HPA axis dysregulation in regularly training individuals, with particular emphasis on its relevance for exercise capacity and recovery. The review includes peer-reviewed experimental, observational, longitudinal, and sport-specific studies addressing HPA axis physiology, cortisol secretion dynamics, cortisol awakening response (CAR), training load, fatigue, overreaching, overtraining, exercise capacity, and recovery in physically active populations. Available evidence indicates that cumulative training stress is associated with changes in basal cortisol secretion, diurnal cortisol rhythm, and CAR. Functional alterations in HPA axis activity may influence metabolic efficiency, neuromuscular function, stress responsiveness, and performance stability. These responses appear to occur along an adaptive–maladaptive continuum and are strongly modulated by individual characteristics, training structure, and recovery adequacy. Importantly, many training-related disturbances of HPA axis function seem to be time-dependent and at least partially reversible. Viewing HPA axis dysregulation as a dynamic and functional process may improve interpretation of training responses, while longitudinal assessment of cortisol-related markers, interpreted within the broader training and recovery context, may provide valuable insight into individual stress adaptability in regularly training individuals.

Background. Prenatal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅), composed of airborne particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers, is a significant environmental risk that can adversely affect pregnancy. Exposure to PM₂.₅ during pregnancy has been associated with a number of adverse birth outcomes, including small for gestational age (SGA), low birth weight (LBW), and preterm birth (PTB). This literature review summarizes evidence published between 2020 and 2025 regarding the relationship between prenatal PM₂.₅ exposure during different pregnancy trimesters and the risk of PTB, LBW, and SGA.Aim of the review. This review gathers and evaluates epidemiological studies from 2020 to 2025 examining the connection between prenatal exposure to PM₂.₅ and adverse perinatal outcomes such as SGA, LBW, and PTBMethods. In our review, we included case-control and cohort primary epidemiological studies that were published between 2020 and 2025. Maternal exposure to ambient PM₂.₅ in connection with PTB, LBW, or SGA was evaluated in eligible studies. Results. Across the reviewed studies, prenatal exposure to PM₂.₅ was linked to an increased risk of LBW and SGA, with heightened susceptibility in the first and second trimesters. Associations with PTB were also noted but more variable. Many large population-based studies found small but statistically significant effects, especially those using thorough exposure assessment methods.Conclusions. The current evidence suggests that maternal exposure to ambient PM₂.₅ during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of adverse birth outcomes, especially indicators of restricted fetal growth. These findings highlight the need for further study to clarify critical exposure windows, underlying biological processes, and effective strategies to reduce exposure during pregnancy. They also support the importance of air quality as a controllable environmental factor for maternal and offspring health.

Background: Menopause is a physiological stage undergoing a profound hormonal response to estrogen hormone changes which can profoundly impact skeletal health and overall health. Under estrogen deficiency, bone loss occurs more rapidly; individuals are prone to more osteoporosis and fractures; as well as, experiencing vasomotor complaints, such as hot flashes and night sweats. Resistance training has been recognized as an effective non-pharmacological method to counter these negative consequences. Aim: The aim of this review was to evaluate scientific evidence regarding the effects of resistance training on menopausal symptoms and bone health. Materials and Methods A search literature of medical and sports science literature was done in peer-reviewed publications in PubMed (MEDLINE), Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Randomized controlled trials, review articles, meta-analyses in scientific journals were incorporated. Outcomes The reviewed studies demonstrated that resistance training increases bone mineral density (BMD), particularly in the lumbar spine and femoral neck. More broadly, resistance training has shown to decrease the frequency and severity of vasomotor symptomatology in menopausal women. Conclusions: Resistance training improves bone health. It is important to recommend it as an adjunct to physical activity programs for menopausal women and as a minimum recommendation for this purpose as part of a large population of menopausal women.

Background. Placenta accreta spectrum (PAS) encompasses abnormal placental implantation with pathological trophoblastic invasion of the myometrium and, in severe cases, adjacent organs. Rising cesarean delivery rates have increased PAS incidence, making it a major cause of severe obstetric hemorrhage and peripartum hysterectomy. Optimal outcomes depend on accurate prenatal diagnosis and coordinated multidisciplinary management. Aim. To synthesize contemporary evidence and guideline recommendations on PAS diagnosis, classification, and management, focusing on imaging standards, operative strategies, and models of care. Material and Methods. A narrative review was based on a targeted search of PubMed/MEDLINE and professional society resources conducted between January 2018 and November 2025. Priority was given to 8 major guideline documents and 5 systematic reviews/meta-analyses; additional observational studies were included for clinical and organizational context. Results. Guideline documents consistently recommend ultrasound as the first-line test for PAS, with MRI reserved for selected cases requiring additional anatomical detail. Planned cesarean hysterectomy without attempted placental removal remains the standard approach for most invasive PAS. Evidence for conservative management and interventional radiology (IR) adjuncts is inconclusive, and recommendations vary. Centralized care and multidisciplinary team management are repeatedly associated with improved maternal outcomes. Conclusions. PAS requires standardized diagnostic pathways and coordinated MDT care in specialized centers. Core recommendations align on early prenatal diagnosis (ultrasound with selective MRI) and planned cesarean hysterectomy for most invasive disease. Uncertainty persists for conservative strategies and IR adjuncts; ongoing prospective studies may inform future guideline updates and refine operative pathways, improving maternal safety and outcomes.

Background. Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is a heterogeneous clinical syndrome associated with an increased risk of progression to dementia, although individual trajectories vary substantially. Growing evidence indicates that modifiable vascular-metabolic, lifestyle, nutritional, and psychosocial factors influence cognitive outcomes in MCI, and that non-pharmacological interventions (NPIs) may support cognitive performance. Aim. To synthesize current evidence on modifiable risk factors associated with progression from MCI to dementia and to evaluate the effectiveness of NPIs targeting cognitive outcomes in patients with MCI. Material and methods. This structured narrative review was based on a targeted search of the PubMed database. Systematic reviews, meta-analyses, longitudinal cohort studies, and randomized controlled trials examining modifiable risk factors and NPIs in MCI were included. Twenty-eight peer-reviewed articles met predefined eligibility criteria and were synthesized narratively. Results. Cardiometabolic conditions, physical inactivity, depressive symptoms, and suboptimal dietary patterns were consistently associated with increased risk of cognitive decline in MCI. Biomarker-informed studies suggest that modifiable factors remain relevant even in patients with underlying Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathology. Randomized trials and systematic reviews indicate that structured exercise, cognitive training, dietary interventions, and multidomain lifestyle programs are associated with improved cognitive performance, with evidence of dose–response effects. Conclusions. An integrated clinical approach combining assessment of modifiable risk factors with targeted NPIs may support cognitive outcomes in patients with MCI and represents a relevant strategy for early preventive care.