Cys2/His2-type zinc finger transcription factors (C2H2 TFs) constitute one of the largest and most functionally diverse transcription factor families in plants, playing core regulatory roles in multiple aspects of plant growth, development, and stress adaptation. Based on literature data from databases including PubMed (1995–April 2026) and integrated with bioinformatics analyses, this review provides a comprehensive overview of this family. We first summarize the structural characteristics and classification systems of C2H2 TFs, and elucidate their evolutionary dynamics from lower plants to angiosperms. Regarding their impact on plant organ development, beyond key biological processes, this review details the molecular mechanisms of C2H2 TFs in floral organ morphogenesis (e.g., petal, sepal, stamen, and ovule development), pollen fertility maintenance, and flowering time regulation. Concurrently, we systematically analyze their functional pathways in responses to abiotic stresses (drought, high salinity, low temperature, aluminum toxicity, etc.) and biotic stresses (pathogens, pests), clarifying the molecular networks through which they coordinate reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis, stomatal movement, and osmotic regulation by modulating hormone signaling pathways such as ABA, SA, and JA. Furthermore, this review discusses major limitations of current research, including knowledge gaps concerning functional redundancy, pseudogenization phenomena, and cell type-specific regulation. We also provide perspectives on future research directions leveraging cutting-edge technologies such as CRISPR gene editing, single-cell sequencing, and multi-omics integration, as well as their application prospects in crop stress resistance breeding and quality improvement. This review provides ideas for in-depth research on the regulatory network and related functions of C2H2 TFs, and offers reference value for improving plant traits, enhancing plant resistance, and increasing the production of plant secondary metabolites.

Copper is an essential trace element for plant growth; however, in excessive amounts, it can cause severe toxicity by inducing bursts of reactive oxygen species and disrupting metabolic balance. As a root-based medicinal plant and food, Platycodon grandiflorus has its roots in direct contact with the soil. Its ability to accumulate copper is the most pronounced among various heavy metals; consequently, it is particularly susceptible to copper stress, which in turn affects its normal growth and medicinal quality. This paper focuses on the intrinsic stress potential and possible response pathways of Platycodon grandiflorus to copper stress. Drawing on existing research and relevant literature, it conducts an integrated analysis of its defence mechanisms across four levels: physical barriers, non-enzymatic antioxidants, conserved physiological and biochemical pathways, and transcriptional regulation. Regarding physical barriers, the cell wall forms the first line of defence through pectin adsorption and lignin deposition; in terms of endogenous antioxidant defence, secondary metabolites such as polysaccharides and saponins can directly participate in the scavenging of reactive oxygen species; regarding conserved pathways, the glutathione–phytochelate system acts in concert with antioxidant enzymes such as SOD and CAT to participate in copper ion chelation and the alleviation of oxidative stress, with hormone signalling regulation also playing a crucial coordinating role in this process; regarding transcriptional regulation, transcription factors such as PgWRKY may mediate the perception of stress signals and the expression of downstream genes. These pathways act in a coordinated and sequential manner, collectively forming a multi-level defence network through which Platycodon grandiflorus responds to copper stress. At the same time, this paper highlights the functional limitations of this defence system, summarises the shortcomings in current research, and proposes directions for future studies, with a view to guiding the safe cultivation and quality assurance of Platycodon grandiflorus in copper-polluted areas, as well as for the breeding of heavy-metal-tolerant medicinal plants.

In recent years, copper pollution has gradually become one of the major problems of soil environmental pollution. Lignin plays an important role in plant resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. CCoAOMT is a key enzyme in the lignin biosynthesis process. In this study, the CCoAOMT gene family members of Platycodon grandiflorus were identified by bioinformatics methods, and their basic characteristics and potential functions were analyzed. The results showed that five members of the PgCCoAOMT gene family were identified in P. grandiflorus, with protein lengths ranging from 246 to 635 amino acids, and were evenly distributed on four chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the PgCCoAOMT gene family was divided into two subclades, namely Clade1a, Clade1b, Clade1c, Clade1d, and Clade2. The cis-regulatory element analysis of the promoter revealed that the PgCCoAOMT members contained a large number of cis-regulatory elements responsive to stress, and conjecture PgCCoAOMT2, PgCCoAOMT4, and PgCCoAOMT5 were involved in the lignin synthesis. The qRT-PCR results showed that, within 5 days of copper stress treatment, except for the PgCCoAOMT4 gene, the other genes exhibited different expression levels. Furthermore, the expression levels of all five PgCCoAOMT genes increased significantly at 7 days of treatment. With the increase in the number of days of treatment, the content of lignin in the seedings of P. grandiflorus showed a trend of increasing first and then decreasing under copper stress. In general, in the copper stress treatment of 1–3 days, the transcriptional inhibition of PgCCoAOMT1 and PgCCoAOMT3 and the increase in lignin content contradicted each other, suggesting that there was post-translational activation or alternative metabolic pathways compensation. Meanwhile, in the 7-day treatment, the coordinated up-regulation of the genes was accompanied by the failure of lignin synthesis, which pointed to the core bottleneck of metabolic precursors depletion and enzyme activity inactivation caused by root damage. Research objective: This study reveals the expression level of the PgCCoAOMT gene in the seedings of P. grandiflorus under copper stress, providing a theoretical basis for elucidating the mechanism of P. grandiflorus response to copper stress and for subsequent improvement of root resistance in P. grandiflorus.

The Cerasus humilis, a perennial shrub belonging to the Cerasus genus, is native to China and holds significant ecological and economic importance. Growth regulation factors (GRF) are a family of transcription factors (TF) that play a key role in plant growth and development. This research entailed an in-depth examination of the GRF family in C. humilis, exploring its significance in the evolution of C. humilis. Twelve GRF genes were identified in the C. humilis genome. Named separately as ChGRF1-Chumilis15987.1, ChGRF2-Chumilis25207.1, ChGRF3-Chumilis26233.1, ChGRF4-Chumilis08578.3, ChGRF5-Chumilis18808.1, ChGRF6-Chumilis12052.1, ChGRF7-Chumilis10417.1, ChGRF8-Chumilis01608.1, ChGRF9-Chumilis14057.1, ChGRF10-Chumilis12169.1, ChGRF11-Chumilis14952.1, and ChGRF12-Chumilis07534.1. Phylogenetic analysis divided twelve GRF genes into five subfamilies. The gene structure, pattern, and cis-regulatory components of the GRF gene family were analyzed. In addition, according to collinearity analysis, there are six collinearity with Arabidopsis, twelve collinearity with Malus pumila, eight collinearity with Vitis vinifera, and three collinearity with Oryza sativa. Intraspecific collinearity analysis revealed the presence of three pairs of tandem repeat genes in the dwarf cherry genome. Identifying cis-acting elements revealed the prominent presence of gibberellin reaction elements, which are widely distributed in the promoter region. Cluster heatmap analysis showed that ChGRF2 had the highest expression levels in fruits and stems. ChGRF3 is highly expressed in red fruits of different colors, while ChGRF6 and ChGRF12 are highly expressed in yellow fruits. This study mainly focused on dwarf cherries treated with gibberellin. As the treatment time increased, the ChGRF gene showed different expression levels. ChGRF2, ChGRF3, ChGRF6, and ChGRF12 were up-regulated under gibberellin treatment. These genes all contain hormone-responsive cis-acting elements, indicating tht the ChGRF gene family plays a vital role under gibberellin treatment in C. humilis. The results laid the foundation for further research on the biological functions of the GRF genes in C. humilis.

Astragalus mongholicus is one of the original plant species of the medicinal herb Astragali Radix as recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, possessing significant medicinal value and being widely utilized worldwide. TCP transcription factors constitute a plant-specific transcription factor superfamily that plays essential regulatory roles in vegetative growth, organ development, and abiotic stress responses. However, the TCP gene family in A. mongholicus has not yet been systematically investigated, and its functional characteristics remain largely unknown. In this study, based on genome-wide data, a total of 25 AmTCP genes containing complete TCP domains were identified in A. mongholicus, and their protein properties, sequence alignment, gene structures, and phylogenetic relationships were systematically characterized using comprehensive bioinformatics tools. Promoter cis-element analysis revealed that the AmTCP promoter regions are enriched in cis-elements associated with hormones, light, and abiotic stresses (drought and salinity), suggesting their potential involvement in multiple signaling cascades. Furthermore, transcriptomic profiling combined with qRT-PCR validation demonstrated that AmTCP genes exhibit tissue-specific expression patterns and differential responses to salt stress and polyethylene glycol (PEG)-simulated drought stress. Notably, AmTCP3, AmTCP8, AmTCP11, AmTCP17, and AmTCP19 displayed tissue- and time-dependent alterations in expression under stress conditions, with AmTCP17 and AmTCP19 showing the most pronounced responsiveness. Collectively, our findings systematically elucidate the fundamental molecular characteristics of TCP transcription factors in A. mongholicus, providing a valuable reference for future investigations into the biological functions of this gene family during growth, development, and abiotic stress responses in this medicinal plant.

Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi is a crop with significant economic and medicinal value, but no studies have examined the GATA gene family in S. baicalensis or its expression patterns following foliar spray with nanomaterials. In this study, the GATA gene family in S. baicalensis was identified and analyzed using bioinformatics. The results showed that 25 SbGATAs genes were identified, distributed across seven chromosomes, and could be classified into four subfamilies based on phylogenetic analysis. The physicochemical properties of SbGATAs proteins showed differences in the number of amino acids, molecular weight, and isoelectric point, but all were hydrophilic nuclear proteins. Analysis of cis-acting elements in the promoter regions revealed that the SbGATAs gene promoters were enriched for light, hormone response, and stress response elements. In this study, RT-qPCR was used to investigate the expression patterns of the SbGATAs family members in S. baicalensis leaves sprayed with different concentrations of carbon dot solutions. This study employed the RT-qPCR method to elucidate the expression of members of the SbGATAs family in the leaves of S. baicalensis after different treatments. The results showed that at low concentrations, except for SbGATA6, whose expression was upregulated by 2.1 times, the expressions of the other four genes were all downregulated; at high concentrations—except for SbGATA6, whose expression was upregulated by 3.75 times, and SbGATA14, the expression of which was basically the same as that of the control—the expressions of the other three genes were all downregulated. SbGATA6 was the only gene that was significantly upregulated at both concentrations and whose upregulation ratio increased with the increase in concentration, indicating that it may have a wide response to carbon dot treatment and may be involved in physiological regulation at different concentrations.