The Iberian mountain spiny fescues are a reticulate group of five diploid grass taxa consisting of three parental species and two putative hybrids: F. × souliei (F. eskia × F. quadriflora) and F. × picoeuropeana (F. eskia × F. gautieri). Phenotypic and molecular studies were conducted with the aim of determining the taxonomic boundaries and genetic relationships of the five taxa and disentangling the origins of the two hybrids. Statistical analyses of 31 selected phenotypic traits were conducted on individuals from 159 populations and on nine type specimens. Molecular analyses of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers were performed on 29 populations. The phenotypic analyses detected significant differences between the five taxa and demonstrated the overall intermediacy of the F. × picoeuropeana and F. × souliei between their respective parents. The RAPD analysis corroborated the genetic differentiation of F. eskia, F. gautieri and F. quadriflora and the intermediate nature of the two hybrids; however, they also detected genetic variation within F. × picoeuropeana. These results suggest distinct origins for F. × picoeuropeana in the Cantabrian and Pyrenean mountains, with the sporadic Pyrenean populations having potentially resulted from recent hybridizations and the stabilized Cantabrian ones from older events followed by potential displacements of the parents.

Repeated hybridization and/or polyploidization confound classification and phylogenetic inference, and multiple colonizations at different time scales complicate biogeographical reconstructions. This study investigates whether such processes can explain long-term controversies in Anthoxanthum, and in particular its debated relationship to the genus Hierochloë, the evolution of its conspicuously diverse floral morphology, and the origins of its strikingly disjunct occurrences. A hypothesis for recurrent polyploid formation is proposed. Three plastid (trnH-psbA, trnT-L and trnL-F) and two nuclear (ITS, ETS) DNA regions were sequenced in 57 accessions of 17 taxa (including 161 ETS clones) and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses were conducted. Divergence times were inferred in *BEAST using a strict molecular clock. was inferred as monophyletic and sister to one species of Hierochloë based on the plastid data, whereas the nuclear data suggested that one section (Anthoxanthum section Anthoxanthum) is sister to a clade including the other section (Anthoxanthum section Ataxia) as sister to the genus Hierochloë. This could explain the variation in floral morphology; the aberrant characters in Ataxia seem to result from a Miocene hybridization event between one lineage with one fertile and two sterile florets (the Anthoxanthum lineage) and one which probably had three fertile florets as in extant Hierochloë. The distinct diploid A. gracile lineage originated in the Miocene; all other speciation events, many of them involving polyploidy, were dated to the Late Pliocene to Late Pleistocene. Africa was apparently colonized twice in the Late Pliocene (from the north to afro-alpine eastern Africa, and from south-east Asia to southern Africa), whereas Macaronesia was colonized much later (Late Pleistocene) by a diploid Mediterranean lineage. The widespread European tetraploid A. odoratum originated at least twice. Many of the controversies in Anthoxanthum can be explained by recurring hybridization and/or polyploidization on time scales ranging from the Miocene to the Late Pleistocene. All but one of the extant species shared most recent common ancestors in the Late Pliocene to the Late Pleistocene. The disjunct occurrences in Africa originated in the Late Pliocene via independent immigrations, whereas Macaronesia was colonized in the Late Pleistocene.

The management of a UNESCO Global Geopark (UGGp) requires a vast wealth of miscellaneous scientific knowledge that can be successfully organised using a Geographical Information System (GIS). This paper presents a pragmatic GIS database to assist in the suitable governance of the Courel Mountains UGGp (2017) in Northwest Spain. The database is structured in 66 coverages compiled from public sources and previous works or produced through traditional mapping (combining fieldwork and photointerpretation) and GIS tools. The acquired data was later homogenised and validated by a multidisciplinary team and archived in independent coverages. Forty thematic maps illustrate the broad range of cartographic information included in the GIS database. Among them, 25 basic maps provide an overview of the UGGp and 15 new maps focus on crosscutting and technical issues. All maps illustrate the huge potential of GIS to create new resources combining coverages and adapting the legend according to their purpose and audience. The database facilitates the suitable publishing of consistent outputs (e.g., brochures, books, panels, webpages, web serves), as well as the elaboration of technical data to assist the park management. The database furnishes information on the design of education actions, touristic routes, activities and Geopark facilities. The GIS database is also a supportive tool for scientific research and provides the necessary knowledge to conduct geoconservation actions based on land use, geological hazards and the occurrence of natural and cultural heritages. Altogether, the GIS database constitutes a powerful instrument for policy-making, facilitating the identification and evaluation of alternative strategy plans.