Mycotoxins are harmful substances produced by fungi, with aflatoxins - primarily produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus – posing the greatest threat to food safety. First identified in 1960, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), and aflatoxin G2 (AFG2) are of particular concern, with AFB1 recognized as the most potent hepatotoxin. These crystalline compounds fluoresce under ultraviolet light and are moderately soluble in organic solvents. Aflatoxins contaminate an estimated 25% of global crops, with contamination levels in several regions frequently exceeding international safety standards. Studies from Africa report widespread contamination in staple crops such as maize, groundnut, and sorghum, with both raw and processed products affected. In some cases, aflatoxin levels have reached as high as 2410 ppb – well above the EU’s maximum tolerable limit of 4 ppb. Recent findings in Ethiopia also show several groundnut varieties exceeding regulatory limits for AFB1. Climate change is expected to further aggravate contamination risks, particularly in Europe, where safe maize-growing regions are predicted to shift northward by 2050. Aflatoxins are associated with acute and chronic toxicity in humans and animals, leading to distinct and varied effects, including aflatoxicosis, hepato-carcinogenicity, retarded growth, suppressed immune system, and damage to the liver and kidneys. Aflatoxin production is influenced by both biotic (e.g., microbial interactions, host plant type) and abiotic (e.g., temperature, humidity, pH, water activity) factors. Given the severity of this issue, this review provides a comprehensive overview of aflatoxin occurrence, toxicological impacts, current mitigation strategies, and future approaches to strengthen prevention and control efforts globally.

This work investigates the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) utilizing the aqueous leaf extract of Ocimum sanctum L. A change in colour to dark brown from yellow and an absorption maximum at 460 nm provided evidence for the synthesis of AgNPs. Several reaction conditions namely leaf extract volume, AgNO₃ concentration and duration of incubation were optimized. Maximum synthesis of AgNPs could be achieved with 1 ml of 5% aqueous leaf extract, 1 mM AgNO₃ and 2.5 h incubation period. DPPH (2, 2—diphenyl − 1 - picrylhydrazyl) assay revealed that AgNPs are better than the leaf extract in terms of antioxidant potential. These results strongly recommend the application of green-synthesized AgNPs as effective antioxidants against oxidative stresses associated with degenerative diseases. Characterization of AgNPs were then carried out using certain methods namely as x-ray diffraction (XRD) measurement, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). XRD study confirmed the synthesis of face-centered cubic-shaped AgNPs that are of crystalline nature. The mean particle size of the synthesized AgNPs computed employing the Debye–Scherrer formula, was 22 nm. FTIR study demonstrated that the AgNPs consisted of certain functional groups of O. sanctum which might have helped in reducing AgNO₃ and capping AgNPs. SEM images showed the synthesis of AgNPs of various shapes viz. globular, cubical and flaky. The scattered AgNPs were found to have a size close to 20 nm, which roughly matches with the XRD analysis of the current study.

As there was no maximum permissible limit prescription for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in Ethiopia, this study has been conducted to generate data on AFB1 levels in Ethiopian groundnut accessions/landraces. Besides, an attempt was made to find out if there is any relationship between AFB1 and other parameters such as altitude of cultivation, individual seed weight, kernel colonization by Aspergillus flavus, total carbohydrates, protein and total free amino acids. Out of the 28 accessions studied, merely six accessions registered ≤2 ppb AFB1 and thus, they comply with maximum permissible limit set by European Union. Altitude of cultivation had no relationship with AFB1 levels. Interestingly, total carbohydrates in the seeds as well as kernel colonization by A. flavus showed statistically significant (p < 0.01) positive relationships with AFB1 levels. It is suggested to use kernel colonization measurement as an alternative to the expensive ELISA based AFB1 measurement. Besides, suitable pre- and post-harvest aflatoxin management strategies should be developed to alleviate the AFB1 levels in Ethiopian groundnut.

Phytochemical-loaded nanoliposomes have become a versatile drug-delivery platform to overcome the limitations of conventional cancer therapies, such as systemic toxicity, poor solubility, rapid clearance, and multidrug resistance. This review provides details on the molecular diversity and anticancer mechanisms of the major phytochemicals (e.g., curcumin, quercetin, and EGCG), underscoring their roles in antioxidant defense, apoptosis induction, cell-cycle arrest, and modulation of inflammatory and angiogenic pathways. The structural design of nanoliposomes, phospholipid bilayers, PEGylation, size, and charge tuning, and comparison of formulation methods such as thin-film hydration, microfluidics, and supercritical fluid techniques are described. Passive targeting via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect is contrasted with active strategies employing antibodies, peptides, and folate ligands, while stimuli-responsive systems make use of pH, temperature, enzymes, and magnetic triggers for on-demand drug release. Manufacturing considerations, scale-up challenges, continuous flow systems, and green solvent-free processes are evaluated alongside regulatory pathways under the FDA and EMA frameworks. This review further examines the synergistic potential of co-delivering phytochemicals with chemotherapeutics, highlighting the enhanced apoptosis, efflux-pump inhibition, and epigenetic modulation that collectively overcome chemoresistance. Finally, it addresses biological barriers, immune clearance, formulation stability, and patient variability as critical hurdles. By integrating nanotechnology innovations with plant-derived bioactive compounds, this review provides a roadmap for advancing phytochemical-loaded nanoliposomes for personalized, minimally toxic, and highly effective cancer therapies.

Tamarillo, commonly known as tree tomato (Solanum betaceum) is cultivated for its edible fruits, whose biological activities have been explored. In this study, the antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties of methanolic leaf extracts from red-fruit and yellow-fruit cultivars of S. betaceum were investigated. Leaves of red-fruit cultivars displayed significantly (P < 0.05) higher levels of total flavonoid and terpenoid content compared to yellow-fruit cultivars. The antidiabetic activity was assessed by analyzing the inhibition of α-amylase activity. The leaf extract from red-fruit cultivars demonstrated higher α-amylase inhibiton activity, with an IC₅₀ value of 79.71 µg/ml, compared to yellow-fruit cultivars, which had an IC₅₀ value of 89.97 µg/ml. While the α-amylase inhibition activity of the leaf extracts from both cultivars was lower than that of the standard drug acarbose, this might be considered beneficial. Acarbose exhibits potent α-amylase inhibition, which can lead to the accumulation of undigested carbohydrates in the colon, potentially causing adverse effects. The anti-inflammatory nature was evaluated through protein denaturation inhibition and lipoxygenase inhibition assays. The leaf extracts from red-fruit cultivars exhibited greater inhibition of protein denaturation and lipoxygenase activity than the yellow-fruit cultivars. However, the anti-inflammatory activity of the standard drug aspirin was much higher than that of the leaf extracts from red-fruit cultivars. The antioxidant potential was determined using DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging assays. The leaf extracts of red-fruit cultivars registered significantly higher antioxidant activities compared to those of yellow-fruit cultivars. The ascorbic acid standard exhibited much higher antioxidant potential, with IC₅₀ values of 27.47 µg/ml by the DPPH method and 24.51 µg/ml by the ABTS method. The IC₅₀ values observed in this study could be reduced through the purification of crude leaf extracts. Furthermore, identifying individual molecules in the leaf extracts through techniques such as chromatography, mass spectrometry, bioactivity-guided fractionation, and NMR spectroscopy can facilitate the development of drugs for degenerative diseases.