Ticks and tick-borne diseases significantly impact animal health, public health, and economic productivity globally, particularly in areas where the wildlife–livestock interface complicates management. This review critically examines the current control strategies, focusing on chemical, biological, physical, and integrated pest management (IPM) approaches. Chemical acaricides, while effective, are increasingly challenged by resistance development and environmental concerns. Biological approaches, including natural predators and entomopathogenic fungi, and physical interventions, such as habitat modification, provide sustainable alternatives but require further optimization. IPM stands out as the most promising long-term solution, integrating multiple approaches to enhance efficacy while reducing environmental risks. Emerging innovations, such as nanotechnology-enhanced acaricides and next-generation vaccines, offer promising avenues for improved tick control. Addressing the complex challenges of tick management requires tailored strategies, interdisciplinary collaboration, and sustained research investment in both veterinary and public health contexts.

Ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) significantly impact African animal health and agricultural productivity, especially at the wildlife–livestock interface. This systematic review analyzed 20 eligible studies from East, Southern, and limited parts of Central Africa to determine the distribution and prevalence of key tick species and associated pathogens. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Amblyomma variegatum were the most commonly reported tick species, with R. appendiculatus exhibiting up to 50.5% prevalence in cattle and buffalo in Uganda. The most frequently detected pathogens included Theileria parva, Anaplasma marginale, and Coxiella burnetii, with T. parva showing high prevalence in cattle populations coexisting with wildlife. Notably, geographic disparities were observed, with Central and West Africa being underrepresented. Most pathogen detections occurred in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Botswana, and South Africa, indicating regional hotspots for tick-borne disease transmission. This review highlights the urgent need for enhanced surveillance, region-specific vector control programs, and integrated One Health approaches to address the ecological, agricultural, and zoonotic challenges of tick-borne pathogens across Africa.

Mollusks are among the most ecologically and economically significant invertebrates; yet, their associated microbiomes remain understudied relative to those of other metazoans. This scoping review synthesizes the current literature on the diversity, composition, functional roles, and ecological implications of molluscan microbiomes, with an emphasis on three major groups: gastropods, bivalves, and cephalopods. Drawing on studies from terrestrial, freshwater, and marine systems, we identified the dominant bacterial phyla, including Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes, and explored how microbiota vary across different habitats, diets, tissue types, and host taxonomies. We examined the contribution of molluscan microbiomes to host functions, including digestion, immune modulation, stress responses, and nutrient cycling. Particular attention was given to the role of microbiota in shell formation, pollutant degradation, and adaptation to environmental stressors. The review also evaluated microbial interactions at different developmental stages and under aquaculture conditions. Factors influencing microbiome assembly, such as the host’s genetics, life history traits, and environmental exposure, were mapped using conceptual and graphical tools. Applications of molluscan microbiome research in aquaculture, conservation biology, and environmental biomonitoring are highlighted. However, inconsistencies in the sampling methods, taxonomic focus, and functional annotations limit the generalizability across taxa. We identify key knowledge gaps and propose future directions, including the use of meta-omics, standardized protocols, and experimental validation to deepen insights. By synthesizing emerging findings, this review contributes to a growing framework for understanding mollusk–microbiome interactions and their relevance to host fitness and ecosystem health. It further establishes the importance of mollusks as model systems for advancing microbiome science.

Vegetation changes in savanna ecosystems are playing an increasingly important role in shaping tick populations and the spread of tick-borne diseases, with consequences for both wildlife and livestock health. This study examines how factors such as climate variability, land use, vegetation structures, and host availability influence tick survival, distribution, and behavior. As grasslands degrade and woody plants become more dominant, ticks are finding more suitable habitats, often supported by microclimatic conditions that favor their development. At the same time, increased contact between domestic and wild animals is facilitating the transmission of pathogens. This review highlights how seasonal patterns, fire regimes, grazing pressure, and climate change are driving shifts in tick activity and expanding their geographical range. These changes increase the risk of disease for animals and humans alike. Addressing these challenges calls for integrated management strategies that include vegetation control, host population monitoring, and sustainable vector control methods. A holistic approach that connects ecological, animal, and human health perspectives is essential for effective disease prevention and long-term ecosystem management.

Urban protected biodiversity areas conserve some of the world’s critically endangered and isolated biodiversity while providing essential ecosystem services. However, these urban habitats are threatened by the presence of alien and invasive plants. We studied alien plant species richness and identified the potential predictors in urban protected biodiversity areas in Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, South Africa. Data on alien plant species were collected through surveys and consultations with protected area managers. We determined the relationship between the observed species richness and potential alien plant species predictors, such as area size, number of visitors, proximity to residential areas, and the year the reserve was proclaimed. We documented 574 records of 189 alien plant species from 60 families across 14 protected areas. Phanerophytes were the most common (46.5%), with many species native to South America, North America, and Africa. Most species have formed naturalised populations (67.7%), followed by invasive populations (20.6%) and casual populations (12%), posing future invasion threats. Most species (55.5%) were introduced as ornamental plants, with many of these species forming invasive populations. Half the recorded species were listed under the NEM:BA A&IS regulations, mostly categorized as 1b. Our findings indicate that the annual number of visitors strongly predicted alien plant species richness in urban protected areas. Additionally, a significant negative correlation was observed between species richness and the proximity to residential areas and years since the proclamation. Understanding the distribution patterns and predictors of species richness is crucial in monitoring invasive alien species and conserving biodiversity in urban environments.