We studied whether the serum levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and of antibodies against the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunit NR2 (NR2 RNMDA ) can discriminate between intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) and ischaemic stroke (IS) in stroke patients. We prospectively recruited patients with suspected stroke (72 confirmed) and 52 healthy controls. The type of brain lesion (ICH or IS) was established using brain imaging. The levels of GFAP and of antibodies against NR2 RNMDA were measured in blood samples obtained within 12 hrs after stroke onset and 24, 48 and 72 hrs and 1 and 2 weeks later using ELISA immunoassay. Improvement in diagnostic performance was assessed in logistic regression models designed to predict the diagnosis and the type of stroke. GFAP peaks early during haemorrhagic brain lesions (at significantly higher levels), and late in ischaemic events, whereas antibodies against NR2 RNMDA have significantly higher levels during IS at all time-points. Neither of the two biomarkers used on its own could sufficiently discriminate patients, but when they are used in combination they can differentiate at 12 hrs after stroke, between ischaemic and haemorrhagic stroke with a sensitivity and specificity of 94% and 91%, respectively.

We investigate the influence of institutional factors upon life insurance demand for 32 European countries, considering the socio-demographic and economic determinants as control variables. Using a panel data approach, we find that life insurance demand is influenced differently by institutional indicators from the Worldwide Governance Indicators database, in emerging and transition markets compared to developed ones. The sound legal environment of developed countries, where the level of the rule of law is very homogeneous and very high, makes it non-significant for life insurance demand. For developing countries the enforceability of contracts, the independence of justice and the time efficiency of the judicial process positively influence the decision of citizens to buy life insurance contracts. The effect of income distribution over life insurance density varies across these two categories of countries. For transition and emerging markets we find a positive relationship between life insurance density, income distribution and level of urbanisation. In developed countries, because of the high levels of income, life insurance became a common good, not a luxury one, which makes income distribution an insignificant factor. For emerging and transition countries policymakers should concentrate more on strengthening trust in the insurance sector for reducing the gap with developed countries.

In most Eastern European countries, the life insurance market is poorly developed with respect to the income level of their citizens. Most of the academic literature investigating the determinants of this market focuses on cross-country- or individual-level studies. Our research assesses the specificities of the life insurance market at a subnational level, more specifically at the county level. The behavioral mechanisms are highlighted through cross-section linear regressions with spatial interactions on a database of 42 counties in Romania in 2015. One important result is the positive effect of insurance literacy, estimated in a national survey, on the demand for life insurance. Another significant result is the spatial diffusion process identified in life insurance density between neighboring counties. Among the control variables, we identified a significant positive impact of income and urbanization on the demand for life insurance and a negative impact of the unemployment rate.