The levels aflatoxins in Turkish hazelnuts have been monitored over a 3-years period (2002–2004). Periodical sampling was made in 72 different orchards at different locations representative of the hazelnut-growing areas and post-harvest applications. Various parameters (aflatoxins, water activity, moulds) were analysed and environmental conditions (temperature and relative humidity) recorded during growing and at different stages of harvest and post-harvest processing, involving three different harvesting methods (collection in nets, from the ground, etc.) and four drying techniques (traditional sun-drying, mechanical drying, etc.). Fungal and aflatoxin analyses (HPLC) showed no significant difference except between samples which had been in contact with the ground and those which had not (at 95% confidence level). Aflatoxins levels from the orchard recorded a maximum of 0.77 ± 0.08 ng g⁻¹ from a total of 1624 samples. Regarding harvesting and post-harvest processes, the only application where aflatoxins were detected was in samples which had been in direct contact with the ground (max. 3.18 ± 0.03 ng g⁻¹). Aflatoxin formation was low during storage (max. 0.34 ± 0.003 ng g⁻¹). As a result of mycological studies, a total of 5546 Aspergillus flavus (89%) and A. parasiticus (11%) species were isolated and identified from samples. The results indicated that harvesting hazelnuts into a canvas by shaking the trees, manual harvesting of mature hazelnuts where possible, use of jute instead of nylon sacks and mechanical drying technique would minimize aflatoxin levels in hazelnuts. These recommendations have been implemented and about 4000 people in the hazelnut industry have been trained in these practices.

Objectives: The aim of the study was to investigate feline morbillivirus (FmoPV) frequency, phylogeny and associated pathology in cats in Istanbul, Turkey. Methods: Samples from sick (n = 96) and dead ( n = 15) cats were analysed using reverse transcription PCR. Blood and urine analyses and histopathology were also performed. Results: FmoPV RNA was detected in six cats (5.4%), including three sick (in the urine) and three dead cats (tissues). A significantly greater proportion of FmoPV RNA-positive cats had street access compared with non-infected cats. Blood samples from the morbillivirus-positive cats were negative for morbillivirus RNA. Tubular parenchymal cells, lymphoid and plasma cells in kidney and hepatocytes, lymphoid and plasma cells in liver from dead cats were also positive by immunohistochemistry for the viral N protein. Two FmoPV-positive cats were also positive for feline coronavirus RNA and one cat for feline immunodeficiency virus RNA and feline leukaemia virus proviral DNA. Phylogenetic analysis of the six FmoPV-positive cats showed that the strains were grouped into cluster D and had high similarity (98.5–100%) with strains from Japan and Germany. In the three FmoPV RNA-positive sick cats, respiratory, urinary and digestive system signs were observed as well as weight loss, fever and depression in some cats. Similar clinical signs were also seen in the morbillivirus RNA-negative sick cats. FmoPV RNA-positive cats had lower median red blood cell count, haemoglobin, albumin, albumin/globulin and urobilinogen and higher alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin compared with non-infected cats. Significant histopathology of FmoPV RNA-positive dead cats included tubulointerstitial nephritis characterised by severe granular and vacuolar degeneration of the epithelial cells of the cortical and medullary tubules as well as mononuclear cell infiltrates. Widespread lymphoid cell infiltrates were detected in the renal cortex and medullary regions of the kidneys. Cellular infiltration, cholangiohepatitis and focal necrosis in the liver were also found. Although virus-infected cells were found in the kidney and liver of FmoRV RNA-positive cats, tubulointerstitial nephritis, cholangiohepatitis and focal necrosis seen in FmoRV RNA-positive cats were similar to those observed in FmoRV RNA-negative cats. Conclusions and relevance: This is the first study to show the presence of FmoPV infection in cats in Turkey. Sick cats, particularly those with kidney disease, should be tested for this virus. The genotypes found in this study were similar to previously reported strains, indicating that circulating morbilliviruses in Turkey are conserved.

Immunomodulatory effects of Echinacea purpurae and Pelargonium sidoides in calves were investigated. Sixty 25-day-old nonvaccinated calves living in integrated farm unit were randomly selected and were divided into 5 treatment groups consisting of 12 calves each; 4 groups were receiving different amounts and/or times of Echinacea and Pelargonium and the control group received placebo. Blood levels of γ-interferon, cytokine gene expression, lactoferrin and total IgG were analysed on days 0, 9, and 30. When levels for total IgG, γ-interferon, mRNAs for the γ-interferon, IL-1-β, IL-4 and the tumour necrosis factor-α genes were compared from days 0 to 9 post-treatment, significant differences were found between treated and non-treated calves using various amounts of Echinacea and Pelargonium; a doses of 250 mg Echinacea and 62.5 mg Pelargonium for 5 days seems to be ideal. Echinacea purpurae and Pelargonium sidoides are able to modulate immune functions in calves.

Background: Newcastle disease viruses (NDVs) can spread across continents via migratory birds. Hence, we investigated the frequency of NDV in both non-migratory and birds migrating on the Black Sea-Mediterranean flyway, in Istanbul, Turkey. Birds were trapped using nets placed around the Kucukcekmece lake Avcilar, Istanbul, in spring seasons of 2016 and 2018. In total, 297 birds belonging to 42 different species were trapped, categorized according to species and sex, and flocked oropharyngeal swabs were collected. In addition, flocked swabs were also collected from 115 mallards caught by hunters around Edirne and from 207 birds which had been treated in the Veterinary Faculty of Istanbul university-Cerrahpasa. Tissue samples were taken from dead wild birds brought by public to Veterinary Faculty. A total of 619 flocked oropharyngeal swabs were pooled into 206 samples. RNA was extracted from swabs and tissue samples. Real-time RT-PCR prob. assay was used to detect NDV-RNA in samples. Results: There was no amplification in real time RT-PCR in samples taken from wild birds caught by traps. However, amplification of NDV-F gene was observed in oropharyngeal swabs taken from 2 waterfowls (Common Moorhen and Mallard), and in tissue samples taken from 2 little owls and 1 common kestrel. Sequencing and phylogenetic analyses of these 5 samples for NDV-F gene showed great similarity with NDV subgenotype VII.2 viruses. Analysis also showed that there is a high similarity with the F gene sequences previously reported from Turkey in 2012 and as well as the sequences from neighbouring countries Bulgaria and Georgia and geographically close country such as Pakistan. Although the strains found in this study are closely related, there is a relatively small degree of molecular divergence within 543 bp of F gene of the Turkish NDV isolate and strains detected in Israel, Pakistan, Iran, United Arab Emirates and Belgium. Conclusions: Our findings revealed the presence of subgenotype VII.2 of NDVs in wild birds in north west of Turkey and demonstrated some degree of molecular evolution when compared to the earlier NDV-VII.2 isolate in Turkey.