This study compares the LEED, BREEAM, and WELL certification systems using the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) framework to assess their performance across environmental, social, and economic dimensions and their alignment with sustainable development goals. A structured secondary analysis was conducted on over 50 peer-reviewed articles, case studies, and official certification manuals. Inclusion criteria required documented design targets and post-occupancy outcomes for certified buildings (2014–2024). A two-phase analytical model was applied: first, evaluating each system’s structure and priorities; then benchmarking them using the TBL framework to assess how holistically each addresses sustainability. Results show that LEED leads to energy optimization, BREEAM to lifecycle integration, and WELL to occupant health and indoor environmental quality. However, all systems exhibit post-occupancy performance gaps: LEED and BREEAM underperform by 15–30% in energy use, while WELL-certified projects may exceed 30% due to stringent indoor comfort demands. These findings highlight the need to integrate real-time post-occupancy evaluation into certification protocols. To improve overall effectiveness, the study proposes enhancements such as adaptive performance tracking, occupant feedback loops, and dynamic benchmarking aligned with actual building use. By identifying both the comparative strengths and systemic limitations of the three frameworks, this research contributes to the refinement of green building assessment tools. Practical implications include (1) integrating post-occupancy evaluation into certification renewal cycles, (2) adopting hybrid certification strategies to improve sustainability coverage, and (3) designing benchmarking tools that reflect real-world operational data.

Purpose: The role of architectural design in shaping educational environments has received increasing attention in recent years, shifting the focus from purely functional spaces to the relational dynamics between spatial configuration, pedagogical practice, users' perspectives and user experience. While research on school architecture has widely emphasized the interplay between spatial form and student learning, empirical studies that connect spatial layout with teachers' perceptions remain limited. This study contributes to this growing discourse by examining how school layouts influence teachers' perceived sense of school control, namely teachers' belief about their ability to supervise, support and engage with students in school spaces. Design/methodology/approach: Using a mixed-methods approach, this study integrates space syntax and morphological analysis with teacher surveys from five lower secondary schools in Cyprus. Findings: The developed statistical models explain between 42 and 58% of the variance in teachers' responses. The most robust model accounts for 58%, highlighting the combined influence of a school's axial control and plot coverage ratio in supporting teacher's perceived control. The findings underscore the role of spatial design in facilitating teachers' perceived sense of control. Specifically, school layouts that offer greater visibility and movement contribute to a stronger sense of control, while excessive school exposure to the street network correlates with increased challenges in maintaining order. Originality/value: The results reinforce the critical role of architectural design in shaping safe, functional and effective educational environments, providing a research-based framework to guide school planning and policy decisions.

This study presents a comparative analysis of the LEED, BREEAM, and WELL building certification systems, evaluating their effectiveness across the environmental, social, and economic pillars of sustainability using a Triple Bottom Line (TBL) framework and secondary research. The paper examines how each system addresses energy efficiency, carbon reduction, occupant well-being, and cost-effectiveness. LEED is found to excel in environmental performance and energy efficiency, while BREEAM offers more con-textual flexibility and comprehensive lifecycle integration. In contrast, the WELL system emphasizes health-focused metrics and indoor environmental quality. Despite their respective strengths, all three systems exhibit a consistent gap between certified performance targets and actual post-occupancy outcomes. This performance gap highlights the need for incorporating post-occupancy evaluations and real-time monitoring technologies into certification protocols. The paper proposes actionable strategies to better align these frameworks with global decarbonization and energy-efficiency objectives, such as adaptive performance tracking and enhanced feedback mechanisms. By revealing comparative advantages and systemic limitations, the study contributes to the refinement of certification schemes and offers insights for advancing sustainable, energy-efficient, and occupant-centered building design.

Architectural, urban design, and planning practices are increasingly expected to demonstrate measurable impact, accountability, and responsiveness to complex environmental and social challenges. Evidence-based design (EBD) and research-informed design (RID), which ground design decisions in systematically gathered and critically evaluated knowledge, offer a structured pathway to bridge research and practice. Despite growing recognition, however, EBD and RID remain unevenly integrated across professional practice, particularly within small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which constitute the majority of firms in Europe. This paper explores how SMEs understand, adopt, and operationalize research within architectural, urban design, and planning processes, while identifying the factors that enable or constrain the integration of research into practice. Drawing on a qualitative multiple-case study of four European firms located in Cyprus, Portugal, Italy, and Croatia the study uses semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis supported by AI-assisted coding to identify patterns in how systematic research is understood, enacted and positioned in everyday SME practices. The findings show that research integration depends less on firm size than on the interplay between client expectations, organizational culture, and professional ideology. Practices span a spectrum ranging from ad hoc, compliance-oriented, and project-specific inquiry to strategically embedded and, in one case, activist research-led modes. While research engagement can enhance credibility, efficiency, and innovation, persistent barriers—including limited resources, client resistance, deficient knowledge-management routines, and the absence of shared evaluative frameworks—continue to hinder systematic adoption. Building on the cross-case analysis, the paper proposes a conceptual framework of different modes of research integration in SMEs, offering a heuristic lens for understanding how organizational and contextual factors shape the uptake of research in design practice. The findings contribute to ongoing discussions on practice-based research and highlight the need for more context-sensitive approaches to research integration in small and medium-sized design firms.