Background: Propolis is a natural product of plant resins collected by honeybees (Apis mellifera) from various plant sources. Our previous studies indicated that propolis sensitivity is dependent on the mitochondrial function and that vacuolar acidification and autophagy are important for yeast cell death caused by propolis. Here, we extended our understanding of propolis-mediated cell death in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae by applying systems biology tools to analyze the transcriptional profiling of cells exposed to propolis. Methods: We have used transcriptional profiling of S. cerevisiae exposed to propolis. We validated our findings by using real-time PCR of selected genes. Systems biology tools (physical protein-protein interaction [PPPI] network) were applied to analyse the propolis-induced transcriptional bevavior, aiming to identify which pathways are modulated by propolis in S. cerevisiae and potentially influencing cell death. Results: We were able to observe 1,339 genes modulated in at least one time point when compared to the reference time (propolis untreated samples) (t- test, p- value 0.01). Enrichment analysis performed by Gene Ontology (GO) Term finder tool showed enrichment for several biological categories among the genes up-regulated in the microarray hybridization such as transport and transmembrane transport and response to stress. Real-time RT-PCR analysis of selected genes showed by our microarray hybridization approach was capable of providing information about S. cerevisiae gene expression modulation with a considerably high level of confidence. Finally, a physical protein-protein (PPPI) network design and global topological analysis stressed the importance of these pathways in response of S. cerevisiae to propolis and were correlated with the transcriptional data obtained thorough the microarray analysis. Conclusions: In summary, our data indicate that propolis is largely affecting several pathways in the eukaryotic cell. However, the most prominent pathways are related to oxidative stress, mitochondrial electron transport chain, vacuolar acidification, regulation of macroautophagy associated with protein target to vacuole, cellular response to starvation, and negative regulation of transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter. Our work emphasizes again the importance of S. cerevisiae as a model system to understand at molecular level the mechanism whereby propolis causes cell death in this organism at the concentration herein tested. Our study is the first one that investigates systematically by using functional genomics how propolis influences and modulates the mRNA abundance of an organism and may stimulate further work on the propolis-mediated cell death mechanisms in fungi.

Aspergillus fumigatus can cause invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA). Fungicidal azoles and fungistatic caspofungin (CAS) are the first- and second-line therapies, respectively, used to treat IPA. Treatment of A. fumigatus with CAS or micafungin induces the production of the oxylipin 5,8-diHODE by the fungal oxygenase PpoA. For this article, we investigated the influence of ppo genes, which encode the fatty acid oxygenases responsible for oxylipin biosynthesis, on CAS tolerance. The influence of PpoA and PpoC on CAS tolerance is mediated by MpkA phosphorylation and protein kinase A (PKA) activity. RNAseq transcriptional profiling and the label-free quantitative proteomics of the ppoA and ppoC mutants showed that differentially expressed genes and proteins are related to secondary metabolites and carbohydrate metabolism. We also characterized two clinical isolates, CM7555 and IFM61407, which decrease and increase susceptibility to CAS, respectively. CM7555 does not exhibit increased oxylipin production in the presence of CAS but oxylipin induction upon CAS exposure is increased in IFM61407, suggesting that oxylipins are not the only mechanism involved in CAS tolerance in these isolates. Upon CAS exposure, CM7555 has higher MpkA phosphorylation and PKA activity than IFM61407. Our results reveal the different aspects and genetic determinants involved in A. fumigatus CAS tolerance.

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are extracellular signalling receptors that sense environmental cues to coordinate a biological response. Fungi sense their environment primarily through GPCR-mediated signalling pathways, which in turn regulate fungal development, metabolism, virulence and mycotoxin biosynthesis. A. fumigatus is an important human pathogen that causes aspergillosis, a heterogeneous group of diseases that presents a wide range of clinical manifestations. Here, we investigate in detail the role of the GPCRs GprM and GprJ in growth and gene expression. GprM and GprJ are important for melanin production and the regulation of the cell wall integrity (CWI) pathway. Overexpression of gprM and gprJ causes a 20 and 50% reduction in growth rate when compared to the wild-type (WT) strain, and increases sensitivity to cell wall-damaging agents. Phosphorylation of the CWI protein kinase MpkA is increased in the Δ gprM and Δ gprJ strains and decreased in the overexpression mutants when compared to the WT strain. Furthermore, differences in cell wall polysaccharide concentrations and organization were observed in these strains. RNA-sequencing suggests that GprM and GprJ negatively regulate genes encoding secondary metabolites (SMs). Mass spectrometry analysis confirmed that the production of fumagillin, pyripyropene, fumigaclavine C, fumiquinazoline, and fumitremorgin is reduced in the Δ gprM and Δ gprJ strains, and that this regulation occurs, at least partially, through the activation of MpkA. Overexpression of grpM also resulted in the regulation of many transcription factors, with AsgA predicted to function downstream of GprM and MpkA signalling. Finally, we show that the Δ gprM and Δ gprJ mutants are reduced in virulence in the Galleria mellonella insect model of invasive aspergillosis. This work further contributes to unravelling functions of A. fumigatus GPCRs and shows that GprM and GprJ are essential for CWI, secondary metabolite production and virulence. Author summary: A. fumigatus is the main ethiological agent of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, a life-threatening fungal disease that occurs in severely immuno-compromised humans. Withstanding the host environment is essential for A. fumigatus virulence and sensing of extracellular cues occurs primarily through G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) that activate signal transduction pathways, which in turn regulate fungal development, metabolism, virulence and mycotoxin biosynthesis. The A. fumigatus genome encodes 15 putative classical GPCRs, with only three having been functionally characterized to date. In this work, we show that the two GPCRs GprM and GprJ regulate the phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase MpkA and thus control the regulation of the cell wall integrity pathway. GprM and GprJ are also involved in the regulation of the production of the secondary metabolites fumagillin, pyripyropene, fumigaclavine C, fumiquinazoline, melanin, and fumitremorgin and this regulation partially occurs through the activation of MpkA. Furthermore, GprM and GprJ are important for virulence in the insect model Galleria mellonella . This work therefore functionally characterizes two GPCRs and shows how they regulate several intracellular pathways that have been shown to be crucial for A. fumigatus virulence.