The outcome of the immune response depends on the content and magnitude of inflammatory mediators, the right time to start, and the duration of inflammatory responses. Patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) represent diverse disease severity. Understanding differences in immune responses in individuals with different disease severity levels can help elucidate disease mechanisms. Here, we serially analyzed the cytokine profiles of 809 patients with mild to critical COVID-19. The cytokine profile revealed an overall increase in IL-1β, IL-1Ra, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-2, IL-8, and IL-18 and impaired production of IFN-α and -β. Only an early rise in IL-1Ra, IL-6, and IL-2 levels was linked to worse disease outcomes. On the other hand, long-term rises in IL-1β, IL-1Ra, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-2, IL-8, and IL-18 levels were linked to worse disease outcomes. Principal component analysis identified a component, including IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-α, and IL-12, that was associated with disease severity. Spearman analysis revealed that the correlation of IL-1β and IFN-α was entirely different between mild and critical patients. Therefore, the ratio of IL-1β to IFN-α seemed to be a suitable criterion for distinguishing critical patients from mild ones. The higher levels of the IL-1β to IFN-α ratio correlated with improved outcomes. These data point to an imbalance of IL-1β/IFNα, contributing to hyperinflammation in COVID-19.

The regulation of T helper (Th)1‐ and Th2‐type cytokine patterns is important in the final outcome of leishmaniasis in human and murine models. We examined the efficacy of garlic therapy or a combination of garlic and an antimonial drug (glucantime) in promoting healing and regulation of Th1/Th2 cytokine patterns in highly susceptible BALB/c mice infected with Leishmania major. Separate groups of infected mice received 20 mg/kg/day garlic, 60 mg/kg/day glucantime or a combination of the two, from day 30 after infection for 2 weeks. An enzyme‐linked immunosorbant assay ( ELISA) was performed on spleen cell culture supernatants for interferon(IFN)‐γ interleukin(IL)‐2, IL‐4 and IL‐10. The results indicate that garlic therapy is more effective than the usual antileishmanial drug in curing the infection. Garlic‐treated mice developed Th1‐type cytokine responses. In contrast, glucantime therapy led to a Th2‐type response in the control group with a lower level of IL‐2. However, a combination of garlic and glucantime treatment was more effective than either treatment alone, and resulted in a Th1‐type response similar to that which developed with garlic treatment. These results suggest that garlic extract in combination with an antimonial drug, may provide effective therapy against L. major. The immunomodulatory properties of garlic were elucidated in terms of shifting the cytokine response to a Th1‐type pattern and therefore causing the protective response.

Silver nanoparticles, the new generation of antimicrobial agents, are becoming one of the progressively growing products in nanotechnology. Meanwhile, the potential side effects of these nanoparticles have not been studied thoroughly yet. Macrophages, one of the most important immune cells in innate and acquired immune responses, are a key component of the clearance mechanisms in semi-open interfaces of human body against nanosilver (nano-Ag). In this experimental study, we assessed the effect of commercial colloidal nano-Ag on murine peritoneal macrophages by MTT and nitric oxide (NO) production assay in vitro. A significant decrease in cell viability was observed for 1 ppm (part per million) to 25 ppm of nano-Ag concentrations compared to the control group (P < 0.01) after 24 h of cell culture. Also, a significant decrease in the cell viability was observed for 2–25 ppm of nano-Ag concentrations after 48–72 h, respectively (P < 0.05). In our study, exposure to 0.4–25 ppm of colloidal nano-Ags brought about a considerable decline (P < 0.05) in NO production by macrophages. Nevertheless, there is no evidence of substantial difference at lower concentrations. This acute cytotoxic dose-dependent effect of nano-Ag particles on peritoneal macrophages which declines cell viability and NO production urges caution about the usage for sensitive surfaces. It is highly recommended to carry out the in vivo investigation for human to confirm its use.

Eyes are very sensitive to sulfur mustard (SM) gas because they have wet surfaces. The severity of ocular damage is related to the dose and duration of exposure to SM, and recovery may take up to several years after the exposure. We conducted a large cohort study to evaluate the ocular signs and symptoms of 367 chemical war victims in Sardasht City, Iran, 20 years after their exposure to mustard gas. The results of these chemical war victims (i.e., the cases) were compared with the results for 128 unaffected civilians (i.e., the controls). Photophobia was the most significant symptom in the cases (36.8%) (compared with 20.3% in the controls) (p ≤ .001). Ocular surface discomfort (burning, itching, and redness) was the second most significant symptom in the cases (29.2%) (compared with 19.5% in the controls) (p=.034). Other symptoms such as foreign-body sensation, tearing, pain, blurring of vision, and dry eye sensation were not significantly different between the 2 groups. In the slit-lamp findings, bulbar conjunctival abnormality was the most significant sign in the cases (9.3%) (compared with 1.6% in the controls) (p=.004). Limbal tissue changes were the second most significant sign in the cases (3.0%) (compared with 0.0% in the controls) (p=.048). Other slit-lamp findings related to tearing and abnormalities in the lids and cornea were not significantly different between the 2 groups. Our findings in the present study showed that photophobia and ocular surface discomfort (burning, itching, and redness) were the most significant symptoms. In addition, bulbar conjunctival abnormalities and limbal tissue changes were the most significant signs among the sulfur mustard chemical war victims.