Background: Cytochromes P450 (CYPs) are heme-containing oxidoreductase enzymes with mono-oxygenase activity. Human CYPs catalyze the oxidation of a great variety of chemicals, including xenobiotics, steroid hormones, vitamins, bile acids, procarcinogens, and drugs. Findings: In our review article, we discuss recent data evidencing that the same CYP isoform can be involved in both bioactivation and detoxification reactions and convert the same substrate to different products. Conversely, different CYP isoforms can convert the same substrate, xenobiotic or procarcinogen, into either a more or less toxic product. These phenomena depend on the type of catalyzed reaction, substrate, tissue type, and biological species. Since the CYPs involved in bioactivation (CYP3A4, CYP1A1, CYP2D6, and CYP2C8) are primarily expressed in the liver, their metabolites can induce hepatotoxicity and hepatocarcinogenesis. Additionally, we discuss the role of drugs as CYP substrates, inducers, and inhibitors as well as the implication of nuclear receptors, efflux transporters, and drug–drug interactions in anticancer drug resistance. We highlight the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of hormone-sensitive cancers, including breast, ovarian, endometrial, and prostate cancers. Key players in these mechanisms are the 2,3- and 3,4-catechols of estrogens, which are formed by CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP1B1. The catechols can also produce quinones, leading to the formation of toxic protein and DNA adducts that contribute to cancer progression. However, 2-hydroxy- and 4-hydroxy-estrogens and their O-methylated derivatives along with conjugated metabolites play cancer-protective roles. CYP17A1 and CYP11A1, which are involved in the biosynthesis of testosterone precursors, contribute to prostate cancer, whereas conversion of testosterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone as well as sustained activation and mutation of the androgen receptor are implicated in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). CYP enzymatic activities are influenced by CYP gene polymorphisms, although a significant portion of them have no effects. However, CYP polymorphisms can determine poor, intermediate, rapid, and ultrarapid metabolizer genotypes, which can affect cancer and drug susceptibility. Despite limited statistically significant data, associations between CYP polymorphisms and cancer risk, tumor size, and metastatic status among various populations have been demonstrated. Conclusions: The metabolic diversity and dual character of biological effects of CYPs underlie their implications in, preliminarily, hormone-sensitive cancers. Variations in CYP activities and CYP gene polymorphisms are implicated in the interindividual variability in cancer and drug susceptibility. The development of CYP inhibitors provides options for personalized anticancer therapy.

This systematic review investigates the incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI) into science education by analyzing 17 studies published from 2020 to 2024. The paper examines the utilization of AI in different scientific fields and educational settings and assesses its influence on the methods of teaching and learning. The findings demonstrate a diverse range of AI applications, including chatbots, intelligent tutoring systems, and AI-enhanced textbooks. These apps serve many functions, from being educational tools to assisting in assessments. The investigation demonstrates the favorable impact of AI on student performance, motivation, and engagement in science education, particularly in the areas of personalized learning and the development of self-regulated learning skills. Additionally, issues related to technological infrastructure, obstacles to the sensitivity and reliability of AI systems, and ethical issues were also examined. The study emphasizes the importance of teacher preparation in achieving the successful integration of AI and expresses the necessity of comprehensive professional development. Potential areas for future research encompass investigating the enduring consequences of AI utilization, exploring its applicability in diverse educational settings, and fostering the growth of AI literacy. The study’s findings indicate that while AI has the potential to greatly improve science education, its successful application necessitates thoughtful evaluation of technological, pedagogical, ethical, and social elements to ensure fair and efficient integration across all educational levels.

Human CYP1-CYP4 families play crucial roles in the biosynthesis, bioactivation, and detoxification of a diverse range of chemicals including xenobiotics, steroid hormones, vitamins, bile acids, procarcinogens, and drugs. The same CYP isoform can be involved in the conversion of different substrates via both bioactivation and detoxification reactions depending on a substrate type. Furthermore, the same CYP isoform can convert the same substrate to different products depending on a tissue type. On the contrary, different CYP isoforms can convert the same substrate to a variety of products, either more toxic or less toxic than their parent compound. The metabolic diversity and dual character of biological effects dictate limited number of cancer types, in which CYPs are implicated. In our review, we highlight the latest advancements and current understanding of molecular mechanisms of the development of hormone-sensitive cancers tumors based on dysregulated CYP expression and mutagenic adduct formation. We discuss the variations in CYP activities including CYP gene polymorphisms, which affect interindividual differences in cancer and drug susceptibilities. We show that there is only limited data indicating the statistically significant association between CYP gene polymorphisms and cancer among different populations. The involvement of CYPs in anticancer drug metabolism associated with drug-drug interactions and drug resistance is also discussed.

Multiple controversial scenarios have been proposed explaining the emergence of life, both from environmental and chemical perspectives. These scenarios discuss environmental settings including deep-ocean hydrothermal vents, volcanic lakes, hot springs, and geysers, which could have served as the cradle for life. Environmental conditions varied by energy, chemical elements, minerals, transition metals, dynamic light-dark, hot-cold, and wet-dry cycles for the first organic synthesis. Other controversies concern the type of organisms that could have appeared first: either heterotrophic or autotrophic. The heterotrophic theory suggests that the first organic compounds were abiotically synthesized from simple inorganic molecules accumulating in the oceans and concentrating in coacervates, which functioned as early pre-cellular structures. The chemoautotrophic theory argues that life originated from inorganic compounds, rather than from organic matter establishing proto-metabolic pathways in primary producers. All of the above-mentioned theories rely on redox reactions that created necessary conditions and molecules for the origin of life. This review explores evidences that reconcile the dominant theories, including that: (i) the Hadean atmosphere was weakly oxidizing, but transiently reducing, (ii) hydrothermal systems provided energy for organic synthesis supporting both heterotrophs and chemoautotrophs, (iii) organic compounds were transported between different environments, and (iv) life emerged in multiple local environments.