Concerns have arisen about the impact of wireless technology on male fertility, particularly regarding the duration of 2.45 GHz Wi-Fi radiation exposure. This study examines the influence of various exposure durations on sperm parameters and testicular histopathology, focusing on malondialdehyde as an oxidative stress marker. Twenty-four Sprague Dawley rats were exposed for eight weeks, after which their sperm concentration, motility, and viability and testicular histopathology were assessed. Malondialdehyde levels were measured using an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. One-way ANOVAs with Tukey’s post hoc tests were conducted for the sperm concentration, motility, and viability; the seminiferous epithelium height; and malondialdehyde. The Kruskal–Wallis H test was used for the Johnsen Score and seminiferous tubule diameter. The results indicated that 4 h of exposure to 2.45 GHz radiation induced oxidative stress and adversely affected sperm parameters and the testicular ultrastructure. Gradual recovery was observed at 8 h, with further improvement at 24 h, suggesting the activation of cell repair mechanisms. This was supported by significant changes in testicular organ coefficients, indicating potential recovery. Our findings suggest that Wi-Fi exposure reduces sperm fertility potential, with the body showing limited capacity for complete recovery from the damage.

The brain and testes are connected via the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis. Both are vulnerable to radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR). However, no comprehensive study had evaluated the effects of RF-EMR on key hormones along this axis. Hereby, this study evaluated the effect of RF-EMR on the hormonal changes along the axis, including the neuropeptide kisspeptin. A total of 18 (N = 18) adult Sprague–Dawley rats were divided into three groups (n = 6): Control, 4 h, and 24 h. The Control group was sham-exposed to an inactive router. The exposed groups were subjected to 2.45 GHz RF-EMR for 4 and 24 h daily, for 60 days at a 20 cm distance. The power density was 0.141 W/m² with a whole-body specific absorption rate (SAR) of 0.41 W/kg. No significant changes were observed in hypothalamic Kiss1 gene expression or serum kisspeptin levels. GnRH levels increased significantly in both exposed groups, while FSH and LH remained unchanged. Testicular testosterone was significantly reduced in the 24 h group, while serum testosterone was elevated in the 24 h group compared to the 4 h group. In conclusion, prolonged 2.45 GHz RF-EMR exposure caused selective changes in components of the HPG axis, particularly involving GnRH and testosterone, suggesting potential endocrine effects on male reproductive regulation.

The rapid expansion of 5G technology has increased exposure to high-frequency radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF), raising concerns about male reproductive health. This study investigated the effects of 5G frequencies at 3.5 GHz and 24 GHz on male libido, reproductive hormones, the testosterone-to-oestrogen (T/E) ratio, and androgen receptor expression in rats. Eighteen male Sprague–Dawley rats were randomly assigned to Control, 3.5 GHz, and 24 GHz (n = 6/group). Exposed groups received 7 h/day RF-EMF exposure for 60 consecutive days, while the Control underwent sham exposure. During the final week of exposure, mating behaviours were assessed using mount frequency, mount latency, intromission frequency, ejaculation latency, and post-ejaculatory interval. Serum testosterone and oestrogen levels, the T/E ratio and androgen receptor expression in the testis and hypothalamus were evaluated. The 3.5 GHz group demonstrated statistically significantly prolonged ejaculation latency (3480 ± 1576.956, p < 0.01, Hedges’ g = 1.03) compared with the Control group. In contrast, 24 GHz exposure statistically significantly reduced mount frequency (4.80 ± 0.837, p < 0.01, Hedges’ g = −0.65) and prolonged the post-ejaculatory interval (588.83 ± 206.41 s, p < 0.01, Hedges’ g = 1.63) compared with the Control group. Hormonal analysis revealed statistically significant elevation of testosterone levels in the 3.5 GHz group, whereas the 24 GHz group showed statistically significant reductions in testosterone and oestrogen. Androgen receptor expression was unchanged. These findings suggest frequency-dependent effects of 5G RF-EMF on male libido and endocrine balance.