Autoimmune liver diseases involve a heterogeneous group of chronic inflammatory disorders, including autoimmune hepatitis, primary biliary cholangitis, and primary sclerosing cholangitis. Sometimes presented consistently as an overlapping syndrome, their pathogenesis is rather complex and has yet to be fully elucidated, despite extensive research efforts. This review article corroborates the molecular mechanisms of autoimmune liver diseases, as well as existing and potential therapeutic modalities.

Endoscopy is a diagnostic technique used to visualize the interior of the gastrointestinal organs with the help of specially designed optical systems. In gastroenterology, upper endoscopy (esophagogastroduodenoscopy) and colonoscopy represent the most commonly used procedures for evaluating the gastrointestinal tract. Successful endoscopic examination not only requires familiarity with normal and pathological findings but also a solid understanding of the proper procedural technique. This chapter provides a detailed overview of endoscopic techniques, emphasizing the importance of adequate preparation, scope handling, and patient positioning. It begins with the fundamental principles and preparation protocols for both upper and lower endoscopy. The following sections describe step-by-step techniques for performing upper endoscopy and colonoscopy, along with current recommendations for routine tissue sampling and biopsy.

The heart and liver are closely interconnected through complex hemodynamic, neurohumoral, inflammatory, and metabolic mechanisms. Dysfunction of either organ may adversely affect the other, giving rise to a broad spectrum of cardiohepatic disorders with important diagnostic and prognostic implications. This narrative review is based on a literature search strategy of PubMed and the Web of Science Core Collection covering publications from January 2000 through June 2026, with a focus on hypoxic hepatitis, congestive hepatopathy, and cirrhotic cardiomyopathy. Cardiac diseases may induce liver injury through acute hypoperfusion or chronic venous congestion, resulting in distinct clinical entities characterized by different pathophysiological mechanisms, laboratory findings, imaging features, and therapeutic approaches. Conversely, advanced liver disease may be associated with impaired cardiovascular function, including cirrhotic cardiomyopathy, a condition that frequently remains clinically silent until physiological or therapeutic stress unmasks impaired cardiac reserve. Recent advances in multimodal imaging, including echocardiography with myocardial deformation analysis, abdominal ultrasonography with Doppler evaluation, elastography, computed tomography, and cardiac magnetic resonance, together with emerging biomarkers, have provided additional tools for the recognition and characterization of these disorders, although the clinical value of some newer techniques and biomarkers remains under investigation. Nevertheless, differentiating congestion-related liver injury from progressive fibrosis and identifying subclinical cardiac dysfunction remain important clinical challenges. A comprehensive understanding of the bidirectional interactions between the heart and liver is important for timely diagnosis, accurate risk stratification, and appropriate management. Future studies should focus on standardized diagnostic pathways, validation of novel imaging techniques and biomarkers, and multidisciplinary strategies that may improve outcomes in patients with complex cardiohepatic disease.